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KEY TO 



A BKIEF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



LOGICAL METHOD. 



ALEXANDER BAIN, LL.D., 

PROFESSOR OF LOGIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. 




NEW YORK 

HENKY HOLT AND COMPANY 
1873. 






Lonig r. Klemm 
Bequest 
Feb. 1926 



S9^ 



PREPARATORY EXPLANATIONS. 



Answers to Questions (p. 27). 

These questions extend over the whole of the Preparatory 
Explanations. They are taken up in order ; and the Exercises 
(1, 2, 3) are noticed in the place that they occupy in the 
succession of the Questions. 

Q. 1-7. SPEECH OE DISCOUESE. 

In this section the teacher's chief care should be to impress 
upon the pupils, by every variety of statement and illustra- 
tion, the two cardinal functions of words. 

It will not do to say simply that one class of words name 
or point out persons, things, actions, &c. ; and that the other 
class tell or declare something about them. The great dis- 
tinction between naming and declaring may be explained as 
follows : — 

When I simply say ' John Thomson,' or c The Ameri- 
cans,' or ' The Jews of Amsterdam,' I merely point out 
who I am going to speak about. If I stop after having said 
1 The Americans,' or * The Jews of Amsterdam,' the person 
that I address says— 'Well, what about them?' These 



2i SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OF. 

words merely show the subject of my discourse. One great 
purpose of words, then, is to show what I mean to speak 
about. 

On the other hand, if I say — e is in the garden,' or — * are 
rapidly increasing in numbers,' or — ' are very greedy,' any 
person hearing me would ask — c Who are you speaking about ? 
Who is the subject of your remarks ? You have made a de- 
claration ; who do you make it about ? ' 

In some such way as this tbe teacher may bring home to 
his pupils the distinction between naming on the one hand, 
and telling, declaring, or affirming on the other. He will choose 
familiar examples, and give c naming ' expressions and ' de- 
claring' expressions separately, so as to impress upon the 
mind that the one sort of words are useless without the other. 
There will be no harm although he anticipate a little the 
order of the grammar ; and explain at once that the first class 
are called Subjects, and the second Predicates. He may then 
ask one pupil to give a subject, and another to give a predicate 
to it ; one to name some subject of knowledge, and another to 
make a declaration about it, and so forth; using every arti- 
fice to make the pupils think, and not merely repeat. 

When the teacher comes to the list of subjects of know- 
ledge, where he has to exercise the pupils by such questions 
as No. 6, he may propound such puzzles as — e Name an 
, action, and tell me something about it : ' ( Name an animal, 
and make a declaration about it.' He may then repeat the 
words of the subject or of the predicate, and ask what use 
or function they serve, and what designations are given to 
them. 

Q. 8-25. SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OF. 

It might be rather confusing if the pupil were asked to do 
nothing more than go over the examples in the text, and 



DIFFERENCES A.ND AGREEMENTS. 6 

repeat that the things named agree, or differ, as the case may- 
be. The striking point for the young mind is that we know- 
nothing else about things than that they differ and agree ; 
all our knowledge about a thing may in the last resort be re- 
solved into differences and agreements with other things. This 
should be stated in connection with Q. 8, and brought home 
as far as possible, not only in the examples given, but also by 
reference to objects immediately under the pupil's eye. 

Q. 9 involves a point somewhat difficult to grasp : namely, 
that c up ' has no meaning except as the opposite of ' down,' 
c long ' no meaning except by comparison with ' short/ 
A man that appears tall to a child would appear short to a 
giant : a porter strong by comparison with a slender stripling, 
is weak by comparison with Samson ; a man with £300 a-year 
is considered poor by a man with £3000 a-year. 

Q. 10 should be illustrated practically. 

Q. 11. Among the most striking differences whereby one in- 
dividual thing or person is known from another, are differences 
in place (situation, or position), and differences in time. 
The German Ocean probably differs from other oceans in a 
good many particulars ; but most of these are known only 
to the man of science, the sailor, or the fisherman : to the 
bulk of persons it is made individual, is distinguished from 
other oceans, only by its occupying a different place on the 
map. So to most persons Jerusalem is a separate individual 
thing only as being the capital of Palestine, and the seat of 
certain remarkable events. George III. differed from other 
men in appearance, in movements, in voice, in sayings and 
doings, and by these differences was known to his acquaint- 
ances as a separate individual : but he is best known as 
King of England from 1760 to 1820, that is by his differences 



4 SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OF. 

from other Kings in place and in time, which differences are 
sufficient to make him in their minds a distinct individual. 

The skilful teacher will exercise his pupils on this by nam- 
ing towns, historical personages, &c, and asking whether they 
are known one from another in any other way than in being 
on different parts of the map, or in different pages of the his- 
tory. c Is Paris Rome ? ' c No.' c How do you know that ? 
Do you know anything more about them than that they are 
in different positions on the map ? ' If the pupils read history, 
they may be exercised in a similar way upon the personages 
mentioned in what they have been reading. Simple as the 
exercise appears, the mind may be considerably stirred to 
thought in illustrating the fundamental fact that we know one 
thing from another by the differences between them. 

Q. 12. When the individual things, as Paris and Rome, are 
like each other, we are struck with the agreewxnt, and think 
of them together. While Paris and Rome differ in position 
and in many other respects, they agree in being cities (collec- 
tions of houses) and in being capital towns. The German 
Ocean agrees with all other oceans in being a body of salt 
water, in containing fishes, in being sailed over by ships, &c. 
When we look around us we see everywhere agreements in 
the midst of differences : the agreements make things be 
thought of together, and arranged in our minds into classes, 
while the differences in situation, appearance, &c, make se- 
parate individuals, 

Q. 13. The teacher should frame many questions upon this 
model : gradually bringing home to the youthful mind the 
idea that the things around it may be arranged in groups of 
individuals like each other, yet more or less different. 

Q. 14. Here the teacher may repeat and dwell upon the 



DIFFERENCES AND AGREEMENTS. 5 

statement made at the beginning of the section ; namely, that 
all we know about a thing is that it agrees more or less with 
certain other things, and differs in one point at least from 
everything else. 

The examples in Exercise 1 may be given on the black 
board in a tabulated form — agreements in one list, differences 
in another. Thus : — 

A penny and a shilling 

agree 

1. in being round and flat 

2. in being metals 

3. in being coined money. 

differ 

1. in size 

2. in colour. 

3. in weight 

4. in value 

2. A railway and a road agree in being used for vehicles 
to move along, and differ in the one having rails for wheels 
to run on, while the other has not. When this question is 
put, the pupils may say that the railway is used for steam 
engines, while an ordinary road is not : in reply to which the 
teacher will point out that this is not quite correct, as steam 
engines, called traction engines, are sometimes used on roads. 
He may also notice that horses are sometimes used to pull 
waggons on rails : and that sometimes the engine is fixed, and 
the carriages pulled by a rope. 

3. A dwelling-house and a church agree in being buildings ; 
differ in being used, the one for private purposes, the other 
for a public purpose, namely, religious worship. 

4. Square and triangle — agree in being figures enclosed 
by straight lines ; differ in form. 



SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OF. 

5. Food and drink — agree in being taken into the stomach 
for nourishment ; differ in. the consistency of the material — 
the one being solid, the other liquid. 

6. Six and a hundred — agree in being numerals ; differ in 
the amount they stand for. 

7. Arm and leg — agree (1) in being limbs, (2) in the num- 
ber of their joints,.; differ (1) in position, (2) in shape, (3) in 
function or use. 

Eye and ear — agree: in being organs of sense; differ (1) in 
position, (2) in structure, (3) in use. 

8. Dragoon and foot- soldier — agree in belonging to the 
army ; differ in equipment. 

Private and officer — agree in belonging to the army; differ 
(1) in rank, (2) in duties. 

Lords and Commons — agree in being assemblages of men 
engaged in making laws : differ (1) in constitution, the one 
body being hereditary, the other elective ; (2) in various 
minute powers and privileges. 

9. Englishman, Frenchman, German — agree in being Euro- 
peans : differ (1) in abode, (2) in speech, (3) in many small 
particulars of dress, manners, and way of living. 

10. Printing, writing — agree in being modes of communica- 
ting thought by readable marks : differ in the manner of 
making those marks. 

11. Child, man — agree in being human creatures : differ in 
the stage of their growth. 

12. Catholic, Protestant, Jew, Mahometan — agree in being 
religious sects : differ (1) in creed or belief (2) in ritual, or 
manner of worship. 

13. Farmer, builder, merchant — agree in being tradesmen 
or members of trades : differ in the nature of their work. 



CLASSES AND GENERAL NAMES. 7 

14. Sea, river, fountain — agree in being water; and differ 
in the following particulars : — the sea is standing water and 
salt ; a river is running water and fresh ; a fountain is water 
springing from the earth (or from a reservoir). 

Desert, field — agree in being dry land ; differ in being (1) 
the one uncultivated, the other cultivated, (2) the one unpro- 
ductive, the other productive. 

Q. 15. This has been to some extent anticipated. Classes 
are founded on agreements. Groups of individuals like each 
other are called classes. 

1 Stars ' agree in being small, twinkling lights, seen in the 
sky on a clear night ; and this agreement is the foundation oi 
the class. 

Similarly, ' seas' agree in being vast collections of sail 
w r ater : ' clouds ' in being masses of watery vapour floating in 
the atmosphere : ' ships' in being large vessels for carrying 
goods and passengers over seas or up and down rivers ; and 
these several agreements are the foundations of the classes. 

Q. 16. A ' General' name is a name that may be applied 
to any one of a group of similar things ; that is, to any indi- 
vidual of a class. Class names and general names have the 
same meaning. The teacher should take up such class names 
as 'town,' 'sea,' 'king'; mention individual towns, seas, or 
kings ; and impress upon the pupils that they have a general 
or common name, because they resemble one another. He 
may point out the difference between names of this sort, and 
such names as ' William,' c George,' ' Charles,' which are 
applied to persons without regard to their likeness or un- 
likeness. 

Q. 17-21. Exercise 2. It is of great importance that pupils 
should be made familiar with the distinction between Higher 
and Lower Classes. The teacher should use not only the 



8 SUBJECTS OK, THINGS SPOKEN OF. 

examples given in the Grammar, but any others that may 
occur to him as being specially intelligible to the pupils he is 
dealing with. 

In using the Exercise, he may proceed in some such way as 
follows. On taking up an example, ' social animals,' ' pro- 
perty,' &c, he should first make sure, by close and varied 
questioning, that the pupils understand the meaning of the 
terms — What are social animals ? Animals that live to- 
gether, like bees, and not alone or in single pairs, like the lion, 
the tiger, or the whale. Do social animals form a class ? Yes. 
Why ? Because they agree in living together : they resemble 
each other in this respect, and therefore the general name 
c social animal ' is given to them. Are ' beavers ' a class ? 
Yes — for a similar reason. Is 'social animals' a higher or a 
lower class than ' beavers ' ? A higher : because it contains 
' beavers ' and other classes besides — ' bees,' e wasps,' ' ants.' 
The class e social animals ' is wider, comprehends a greater 
number of individuals, than the class ' beavers,' ' bees,' c wasps,' 
or e ants ' : the general name c social animal ' is applied to a 
greater number of individuals. 

The teacher may also point out that e animals ' is a higher 
class than ' social animals,' comprehending over and above 
social animals, all the animals that are not social. 

Or going the opposite way in the ladder of classification, he 
may take the class ' ants,' and mention that it is sub-divided 
into many classes — yellow ants, red ants, dusky ants, &c. 

In explaining degrees of classification, the teacher will find 
it useful to put upon the black-board such tabulated forms as 
the following : — 

Animals, Higher Class. 

Social Animals, First Lower. 

Ants, Second Lower. 

Yellow Ants, Third Lower. 



HIGHER AND LOWER CLASSES. 9 

Taking Ants alone we have — 

Ants, Higher Class. 

Yellow Ants, Lower Class. 

The following more complicated form — the c tree ' form — 
exhibits to the eye co-ordination as well as subordination : — 

Animals. 



Social Animals. Solitary Animals. 

i * » 

Beavers, Bees, Ants. 



Yellow Ants. Ked Ants. 

The teacher will farther explain upon these same examples 
that c genus ' is another name for higher class, { species ' 
for lower class : that the higher class (or genus) contains most 
individuals, but fewest marks : that a word introducing more 
marks and so narrowing the class is called an Adjective : that 
lower classes (or species) are called 'subordinate' to their 
higher classes (or genera), while they are called ' co-ordinate' 
with one another. 

Q. 22-24. Definition. Exercise 3. The ■ simplest way of 
defining, which the teacher will do well to follow here, is to 
state the genus or higher class, and then specify the differ- 
ences. 

"We are met, however, by a difficulty at starting. In the 
case of all the classes given for definition in this Exercise, there 
are several higher classes, at different degrees of comprehen- 
siveness : which shall we mention? The full answer to this 
would carry us much too far for the present purpose : in these 
examples the teacher should simply give the class containing 
all the things enumerated, and thereafter give their differences 
from each other. 



10 SUBJECTS OR THINGS SPOKEN OF. 

1. Plough, spade, clock, watch, cart, carriage. — All these 
belong to the genus ' machine ' : they all agree in being 
mechanical contrivances : they are subordinate to the class 
machine, and co-ordinate with one another under that class. 

So much for what is common to the things : we next con- 
sider how they differ from each other. A plough is a machine 
(1) used for turning up the soil, and (2) dragged by horses. 
A spade is a machine (1) used for turning up the soil, and (2) 
worked by hand and foot. A clock is a machine (1) used for 
marking time, and (2) having a pendulum. A watch is a 
machine (1) used for marking time, and (2) having a main- 
spring. A cart is a machine (1) having wheels, and (2) used 
for conveying goods. A carriage is a machine (1) having 
wheels, and (2) used for conveying passengers. 

These are the differences of the things enumerated viewed 
as co ordinate classes under the genus machine. We may 
take them in smaller groups, under less comprehensive genera, 
puting a step between, as it were. Thus c plough' and 'spade' 
are co-ordinate under the genus agricultural implement, 
or machine used for turning up the soil : they agree in this. 
When this is taken as their agreement, when they are looked 
upon as members of this lower genus, their differences, the points 
that distinguish the one from the other, are that the one is 
dragged by horses, while the other is worked by hand and 
foot. To class them as c agricultural machines,' defines or 
listinguishes them from other machines : to mention these 
other points defines or distinguishes them from one another. 

Similarly ' clock' and ' watch' come under the genus ' time- 
piece' : their chief distinguishing marks being that the one 
has a pendulum, the other a mainspring. c Cart ' and ' car- 
riage ' are co-ordinate under the genus e wheeled vehicle ' : the 
difference being that the one is used for goods, the other for 



EXERCISE ON DEFINITION. 11 

The following table represents the two higher grades 
referred to in the above. They are, as it were, two stories 
built upon the given classes as a foundation : — 

Machines. 

, — . j> , 

Agricultural m. . -^ , . , 

Implements. Time-pieees. Venieles. 



—A 



Plough, Spade. Clock, Watch. Cart, Carriage. 

2. ( Mountain,' e sea,' and c lake/ agree in being large 
physical features. It is part of their definition to say that they 
are large physical features. 

A mountain differs from the other two in being a high 
elevation of land. It differs from a hill in being higher or 
larger. 

1 Sea ' and c lake ' differ from a mountain in being sheets 
or expanses of water : they differ from each other in size. 

3. e Star,' c planet,' and c moon,' belong to the class of 
heavenly bodies. 

A star differs from a planet in seeming to us to be fixed : the 
planet seems to move about, or wander, in a certain course. 
Both star and planet differ from the moon (1) in apparent size, 
(2) in movement : the moon is next to the sun in apparent 
size, and is a satellite of the earth. c Moon ' is not the name 
of a class, but of an individual body ; there is but one moon : 
* star ' and c planet ' are class names ; there are many 
planets. 

4. Builder, sailor, painter, general, king, martyr — agree in 
being men. We define each of them in the first place by 
calling him c a man.' 

A builder is a man whose occupation it is to build houses. 



12 PREDICATION. 

A sailor is a man whose occupation it is to attend to the 
sailing of ships. 

A painter is a man whose occupation it is to paint. The 
term is applied both to trade painters and to Fine Art 
painters : these are two subordinate classes. 

A general is a man that commands an army. 

A king is a man that rules a country. 

A martyr is a man that has lost his life rather than give up 
his opinions. 

5. ' Book ' and e paper.' A book is a collection of sheets 
of printed paper (genus), bound together (difference). Co- 
ordinate classes under the same genus, * sheets of printed 
paper/ are newspaper, pamphlet, magazine. 

' Paper ' is material for writing or printing upon. 

6. 'Prudence/ and c benevolence ' belong to the class 
' virtues.' Prudence is the virtue of having regard to our 
own welfare : benevolence, the virtue of having regard to the 
welfare of others. 

Q. 25. c White ' signifies the colour so called as it appears in 
an object — ahorse, a cloth, a piece of paper, a stone : e white- 
ness' signifies the colour wherein all white objects agree, 
spoken of by itself and without regard to any of them in par- 
ticular. Whiteness is Abstract. 

Q. 26-29. WHAT IS SAID OF A SUBJECT— 
PREDICATION 

There is no difficulty in these questions. c London has a 
mayor' (Q. 27) is a Singular proposition e all the English 
towns have mayors ' is a General proposition. When a pro- 
position is not true in every case, the Exceptions should be 
stated along with it. 



EXERCISE ON PREDICATION. 



13 



Exercise 4. In working this exercise, the teacher would do 
well to write the Subjects and the Predicates in parallel 
columns on the black-board, or to ask his pupils to write 
them out so on slate or paper. Thus : — 



Subject. 
The kettle 

Our neighbour's cat 
Whoever wishes to be 

well spoken of 
A rose 



Predicate. 
boils. 

has taken a rat. 
should think what will 
please other people. 

by any other name would 

smell as sweet, 
was the beginning of 

great evils to the 

country. 

there have been 
within the last 
century. 



The death of Alexander III. 

of Scotland, by a fall 

from his horse 
Great improvements 

in all kinds of 

knowledge, and in 

all the arts 

In teaching the youngest pupils to distinguish between 
Subject and Predicate, one should particularly insist upon, as 
guiding marks, the questions — What is spoken about ? and 
What is said, or affirmed, about it ? 

Q. 30-42. The answers to these questions are simply re- 
petitions of what is found in the Grammar. The purpose of 
the preliminary analysis of Sentences is to bring out clearly 
the main characters of the several Parts of Speech : and the 
teacher should insist chiefly upon this. 



THE NOUN. 

It must be kept in mind that the remarks made in answer 
to the various questions and in the working out of the exercises, 
are intended as hints and additional information for the teacher 
and the private student, and not as specimens of answers to be 
expected from younger pupils. The teacher must judge for 
himself at what stage such information should be given to his 
classes. 

In exercising pupils on the Noun, the teacher's first care 
should be to impress the fundamental notion of the noun as the 
subject of an affirmation. Every now and again, the pupil 
should be pulled up, and asked to explain in accordance with 
the definition, how he knows a word to be a Noun. In answer 
to this it will be quite enough at first that the pupil recognise 
the word as subject in the sentence given, or frame a sentence 
having the given Noun as subject. The other distinctions may 
be reserved to a later stage. The distinction between Noun 
and Pronoun, should be reverted to when the Pronoun comes 
up : the final distinction cannot be apprehended till the pupil 
knows the infinitive forms of the Yerb. When all the distinc- 
tions have been brought out, such catechising as the following 
may be found useful : — 

Jane waters the flowers. Q. How do you know that c Jane ' 
is a Noun ? A. Because it is the subject of the sentence. Q. 
How do you know that c Jane ' is not a Pronoun ? A. Be- 
cause it is the name of a person, and not merely a word refer- 



QUESTIONS ON THE NOUN. 15 

ring to a name previously mentioned. Q. How do you know 
that ' Jane ' is not the infinitive of a. Verb ? A. Because it is 
inflected for case, as in c Jane's hat,' 'Jane's gloves,' and in. 
finitives are not inflected^ 

Not to perplex his pupils, whom probably he should not try 
with this till a - tolerably advanced stage, the teacher should 
tell them that there is no risk of mistaking ' Jane ' for an 
infinitive ; and that the purpose of the exercise is simply to 
make them see that Nouns are sometimes inflected for gender, 
number, or case, and that is a distinction of the Noun. There 
is no risk of confusing Noun and Infinitive, except when 
they have the same form, as occurs with verbal nouns in ing 
1 groaning/ ' sighing/ &c. i in which cases the inflection is a 
test. 

Answers to Questions (p. 41). 

It would be superfluous to answer here such of the ques- 
tions as may be answered by a literal repetition of the words 
of the grammar. I notice only questions requiring the ap- 
plication of unfamiliar principles. Further, I may say that 
questions upon the mere text are given only as specimens : 
they are not intended to be exhaustive, and the skilful teacher 
will vary them and frame others according as he finds it neces- 
sary. 

Q. 4. ' Adam,' c tree,' ' winter,' and such-like are called 
Nouns, because they may be the subjects or the objects of 
sentences, affirmations, statements : thus — e Adam fell from 
his first estate ; ' ' The tree is cut up for burning ; ' ' Winter 
is the season of cold.' To show that they correspond fully 
with the definition, we must show that they differ from Pro- 
nouns and from Infinitives, which also may be subjects or 
objects of sayings, may be spoken about in sentences, 



16 



THE NOUN. 



'Adam/ 'tree,' and 'winter,' are names of actual things 
and so are distinguished from Pronouns. They are distinguished 
from Infinitives by their inflections : Adam and Winter being 
inflected for case — 'Adam's fall,' 'Winter's snow;' tree for 
number, ' the trees grow.' At the present stage, the pupil 
beginning grammar cannot give the full correspondence : he 
can be expected only to make sentences showing that the 
given Nouns are used as subjects or as objects. He should 
be asked to do this on several other Nouns. 

Q. 5. The word c he ' is said not to be a Noun, because 
though it may stand as the subject of a sentence, it is not the 
name of an actual thing. 

' Great ' is not a Noun because it cannot stand as the sub- 
ject of a sentence. It does not answer the first part of the 
definition of a Noun. 

In such a sentence as ' Loving is more pleasant than 
hating,' ' loving ' is the subject of a sentence. It is also the 
name of an actual state. It thus answers two parts of the 
definition of a Noun. But it fails to answer the third : it 
cannot be inflected either for gender, for number, or for case. 

Q. 6. ' India ' is unmistakably a Proper noun, as being 
applied to only one country; but the learner may be puzzled 
to know why ' Charles ' should be called Proper or Singular, 
seeing that the name is applied to several persons. The 
truth is that in such cases the titles ' Proper ' and ' Singular ' 
are not exactly suitable — at least their suitability is not im- 
mediately apparent : and that is the reason why this class of 
nouns has a third designation, ' Meaningless.' ' Charles,' 
although a name common to several objects, is yet reckoned 
in this class, because it is a Meaningless mark ; used merely 
to single out an object, and applied to several only from want of 



QUESTIONS ON THE NOUN. 17 

singular names, and not on the ground of any likeness or agree- 
ment among the objects it is applied to. In the case of such 
a name as ' Charles/ Meaningless is the title to insist upon. 
Such a name as ' Charles' is common to a number of indi- 
viduals without regard to their being like or unlike each 
other : a General name is common to a number of individuals 
oecause they are like each other. 

Q. 9. The Nouns c star,' * kingdom,' c table,' are called 
Common, because common to several objects : General, because 
applicable to every member of a genus, or class ; Significant, 
because they signify the points wherein the members of a 
class agree. c Star ' signifies the definition of the class so 
called, 'a small twinkling light seen in the sky on a clear 
night.' ' Kingdom' signifies in like manner c a country ruled 
by a king.' ' Table' signifies 'an article of household furni- 
ture of peculiar construction and peculiar use.' 

Q. 10. Class Names are General, as applying to all the 
members of the class ; Significant, for the reason given in 
answer to Q. 9. 

Q. 12. ' Head,' ' family,' and even ' the head of a family/ 
are general designations, class names, applying to several 
objects in virtue of a common meaning. But i the head of our 
family ' can apply only to one person : the various significant 
names do not apply unitedly to more than one person. 

Similarly, ' father/ and e mankind/ are significant class 
names ; but in union with the significant words c the ' and 
' all/ they apply to one person, and to one alone. 

' Stuart/ though not a significant name, is common to a 
number of individuals : but in union with the other significant 
words c the ' and ' last/ it applies only to a single individual. 



18 THE NOUN. 

' Pyramid ' is a class name : along with ' the ' and ' great/ 
it is restricted to one particular pyramid. 

Q. 13. 'Mount 'is a class name, signifying 'rising ground.' 
' Horeb ' is a meaningless name. The two words together make 
one Singular name. 

Similarly, ' falls ' is significant ; ' Niagara,' meaningless : the 
two in combination name an individual object. 

'St. Paul's' is meaningless, 'cathedral' significant, apply- 
ing to a certain class of churches. 'St. Paul's Cathedral' is 
the name of a particular building. 

Q. 14. ' People,' ' family,' and ' fleet ' are all Significant as 
well as Collective: 'people' signifies the inhabitants of a 
country collectively ; ' family,' the members of a household 
collectively ; and ' fleet ' a number of ships collectively. All 
these are class names as well as collective names : there are 
more than one people, more than one family, more than one 
fleet : and they are thought of together, and named ' peoples, 
' families,' and ' fleets, ' on account of their common likeness. 

Qq. 15, 16. ' Ivory,' ' spice,' and ' grass ' are names of 
Materials : ' wines,' ' spices,' ' grasses,' are class names. This 
distinction the teacher should exemplify at length ; insisting 
that names of materials are always singular, and that when 
they are used in the plural, their meaning and their applica- 
tion are changed. Prominence should also be given to the 
similar fact in the case of Abstract nouns. 

Q. 18. ; Education,' ' success,' ' life,' are Abstract : signify- 
ing agreements among things, without pointing to any of the 
things that agree. 



SINGULAR AND GENERAL NOUNS. 19 

Exercise 5. 

Singular and General Nouns. 

1. 'Columbus' — astrictly Singular and Proper Name. When 
the word is used by itself, we think only of one individual. 

' America ' — also strictly Proper, Singular, and Meaningless. 

2. ' George Fox ' — is not so strictly limited to one person as 
Columbus. Before we know exactly who is meant, we need 
the other designation — ' the first of the Quakers.' 

'Quakers,' though spelt with a capital, is not a Proper 
^Name, but a Class Name, signifying a sect with peculiar doc- 
trines. Every individual professing those doctrines is called 
by the name. 

"The first of the Quakers,' is an example of a Singular 
Significant name, made up by the union of several General 
Significant names. 

1 Shoemaker ' — a Class name, signifying ' a man whose trade 
it is to make shoes.' 

3. ' Joan of Arc ' — a compound Proper name : Joan being 
applied to many women, the other designation is added to 
restrict the name to one. 

' Stake,' a general significant name, here used in a peculiar 
way. Generally it signifies any long thin piece of wood 
sharpened at one end and driven into the ground : here, by 
what is called a Figure of Speech, it signifies, as it were, the 
particular stake that martyrs were bound to when they were 
burnt to death. 

4. ' Washington,' a Meaningless word, here used as the 
name of a town. It is used also as the name of a man. When 
we see the name by itself, we do not know which is intended ; 
either another designation must be added, such as 'the Ame- 



20 THE NOUN. 

rican patriot/ or ' the capital &c.,' or we must guess from 
what is said about it. 

' United States/ is an example of a Singular Name, having 
at present a certain meaning or significance. ' The capital of 
the United States/ is a general name, ' capital,' restricted to 
one place by an additional designation. There are many 
capitals ; there is only one capital of the United States. 

5. ' Ark ' and ' covenant ' are both General names : but 
the combination 'the ark of the covenant/ is Singular, applies 
only to one thing. 

'Mount Zion' is a Mixed Singular name; 'mount' is sig- 
nificant, ' Zion ' meaningless. 

6. ' Koman Catholics ' are, like ' Quakers/ a class : the name 
is general, and significant of peculiar doctrines. 

' The Blessed Virgin ' is a Significant Singular designation. 

' Flesh/ is a noun of Material. 

* Lent,' is a Proper noun, the name of a festival. 

7. c Shout/ General, Significant. 
'Reign/ Abstract, Significant. 

' Chaos/ and ' Night/ are, like ' Providence/ Singular and 
Significant. They are Abstract nouns, treated as persons. 

8. ' Earth/ also Singular and Significant. It is a noun of 
Material, treated as a person. 

9. ' Laud/ Proper name. There may be many persons of 
that name, but when it stands by itself, we know the indi- 
vidual meant. 

' Tower/ is a general name, restricted by the article ' the ' 
to one particular place. 
. 10. 'Christmas/ Proper name, a festival. Originally it 



EXERCISE ON NOUNS GENERALLY. 21 

was significant, ' Christ's mass/ but now it lias the force only 
of a meaningless mark. 

11. ' Measles,' ' Scarletina,' ' Small-pox' — Proper names, 
diseases. It is hard to decide in what class names of diseases 
should be reckoned. They are certainly not used as Class 
Names : we do not speak of a Measles, a Small-pox, or a 
Scarletina. Nor are they Collective. 

12. ' James,' ' Mary,' are Meaningless, but applied to many 
different persons, and needing some other designation before 
they denote only one person without risk of confusion. 

' Arithmetic,' and ' Music,' are Singular or Proper names, 
denoting branches of knowledge. 

' January ' is a Proper name, denoting a month. 

Exercise 6. 

Nouns generally. 

1. ' Frederick the Great,' a Meaningless Proper name re- 
stricted to one particular person by a significant epithet. 

'Empire,' is used sometimes as an Abstract noun, some- 
times as a General noun. ' The Empire ' is a Singular and 
Significant name. 

' The Seven Years' War,' is a Singular and Significant name, 
comprising two General nouns, ' year,' and ' war. ' 

2. ' Kindness,' an Abstract noun, formed from the adjective 
'kind.' 

' Animals,' a General noun. ' Kindness to animals ' is the 
subject of the sentence. 'Animals ' is an example of a noun 
occurring along with a preposition, in a phrase. 

' Exercise,' an Abstract noun, formed from a verb :' bene- 
volence,' an Abstract noun, formed from an adjective. 



22 THE NOTJN. 

3. ' Produce/ an Abstract noun, formed from a verb. * La- 
bour/ an Abstract noun. ' Produce ' may be called a passive 
verbal abstract, standing as it does for ' what is produced:' 
' labour ' an active verbal abstract, standing in place of the 
active infinitive 'labouring.' 

'Wealth/ an Abstract noun, formed from an adjective. 
' Produce/ ' labour/ and ' wealth ' are examples of three well- 
marked classes of Abstract nouns, the passive verbal abstract, 
the active verbal abstract, and the adjectival abstract. This 
is probably too fine a distinction for younger pupils, but the 
teacher should try how far it can be explained to them. The 
distinguishing of the different classes of Noun is the best dis- 
cipline of the ingenuity that Grammar affords, the exercise 
that most calls for thought, and is least liable to be made a 
matter of barren mechanical routine. 

4. ' Security/ an adjectival Abstract noun. 

' Property/ an adjectival Abstract noun, sometimes used in 
the plural, in which case it is a General noun. 

'.Capital/ is an Abstract noun, meaning 'money' or 'goods' 
viewed as a starting-point for producing more. Both 'pro- 
perty ' and ' capital ' have something of the ' Material ' as 
well as of the ' Collective ' in them : each stands for a collec- 
tion of materials viewed in a certain relation. This distinc- 
tion should probably be reserved for more advanced classes. 

' Power/ and 'skill/ are Abstract nouns, having adjectives 
corresponding to them. 

' Combination/ ' division/ and ' self-preservation/ are active 
verbal Abstracts. 

5. ' Throne/ a General noun, here restricted by significant 
epithets to one particular throne. The teacher may perhaps 
remark that the word is used in what is called a Figure of 



EXERCISE ON NOUNS GENERALLY. 23 

Speech : the throne is represented as doing what only a living 
being conld do. 

' Caesars,' a Proper, Meaningless nonn : applying to several 
persons holding the same office, and so nsed in the Plnral. 
This is an example of a Proper name originally meaningless, 
bnt in conrse of time coming to have an approach to a mean- 
ing, being really significant of a certain dignity or rank. 

1 Certainty,' an adjectival Abstract noun ; e possession,' an 
active verbal Abstract noun. 

c Occupier,' a General noun. 

6. 'Dirt' and c matter 5 are nouns of Material; c place/ a 
General noun. 

7. c Agents,' a General noun. The teacher may here, if he 
thinks fit, explain the force of the Possessive Case. The pupil 
would probably carry away only that 's is the sign of the 
Possessive Case ; still, that would be so much anticipated. 
Such anticipations, which the teacher should make at his dis- 
cretion, gradually take away the burden of absolute novelty, 
and make the pupil's task lighter as he proceeds. 

f Speed,' an Abstract noun, having a corresponding adjective 
e speedy.' 

* Turf,' a noun of Material. 

'Height,' ' thickness,' adjectival Abstract nouns. 

' Space,' an Abstract noun (see Gram. p. 37) . 

e Half,' an Abstract noun. 

8 Acre,' a General noun. 

' Rampart,' a General noun. 

1 Arms,' c ammunition,' and c provisions,' are nouns of Ma- 
terial. So far they are, like c property,' and ' capital,' Collec- 
tive ; being names for heterogeneous collections of things used 
for a common purpose. The names signifying only the pur- 



24 THE NOUN. 

pose of the various articles embraced under each, they may 
also be said to be Abstract. ' Arms,' and < provisions/ are 
used only in the Plural (which designation the teacher has 
probably already seen reason to explain). 

'Settlement,' originally an Abstract noun, active verbal: 
here used as a General noun. 

' Plank,' a noun of Material. 

8. c Time' (see Gram. p. 37). 

' Foot,' ' horse,' Collective nouns. 

9. f Lowliness,' adjectival Abstract noun. 

'Ambition,' originally an Abstract noun; here used as a 
Singular noun, by a figure of speech called Personification. 

10. { Grape,' c gooseberry,' General nouns. Here, by a 
peculiar effect of 'the,' they are converted into Collective 
nouns : e the grape/ c the gooseberry/ are names for ' grapes 
and c gooseberries ' collectively. 

c Fruit/ like ' ammunition/ a sort of Collective noun of 
Material. Here it is used as a General noun (see Gram. p. 36). 

11. e Affectation, ' verbal Abstract noun. 

c Part/ an abstract noun, here used as a general noun. 

'Behaviour/ an active verbal Abstract. 

' Defects.' c Defect ' is an Abstract noun, but here, as the 
plural indicates, it is used as a General noun. 

The teacher may remark concerning e lighting up ' that it is 
an example of an infinitive occurring in one of the places where 
a noun might occur (Gram. p. 38). In the following sentence 
it is the subject : — ' Lighting up a candle to our defects is 
injudicious.' 

12. f Beauties/ Abstract, used as General ; c poem/ General ; 
' sight/ Abstract, active verbal, equivalent to c act of' seeing.' 



EXERCISE ON NOUNS GENERALLY. 25 

13. e Life ' is an Abstract noun, as also c liberty :' but in the 
second clause, they are used as General nouns, in the plural. 
Some authorities object to this usage, holding that we should 
say * their life,' and ' their liberty.' 

14. ( Geometry,' Singular noun, name of a branch of know- 
ledge : c practice,' Abstract, active verbal: 'perfection,' Ab- 
stract, adjectival: c sciences,' and ' arts,' General. c Science' 
and f Art ' are originally Abstract : they are also often used as 
Singular names for large departments of knowledge. 

15. e Set,' a Collective noun : c ferns,' General : c district,' 
General, originally Abstract. 

16. c A property.' According to the rule (see Gram. p. 37) 
' property ' is here a General noun. 

* Societies,' a Collective noun used iu the plural. 
For the other words, see No. 4. 

17. f Loam,' e sand,' c clay/ are nouns of Material. In 
'potter's' (a General noun) we have another example of the 
Possessive. 

18. c Hundreds,' a Collective noun, used in the plural : 
1 grasses,' a noun of Material, used in the plural, and so con- 
verted into a General or Class noun : e Botany,' a Proper, 
or Singular noun, name of a branch of knowledge. 

e Work ' is here General. It is originally, like c labour,' an 
abstract noun. 

19. e Halloween,' c Shrove Tuesday,' Singular nouns, names 
of Festivals ; like ' Christmas,' originally significant. 

20. e Morris,' a Singular name. 
e Saddle,' a General noun. 

1 People,' a Collective noun. 
$ 



26 THE NOUN. 

* Old Treasurer,* a compound Singular name ; a good ex- 
ample of significant names applied without any meaning to 
designate an individual. 

' Fraction,' an Abstract noun. 

' Regiment,' ' battery,' ' squadron,' Collective nouns. 

21. 'Humanity,' Abstract, adjectival. 

'Creatures,' a General noun: originally a passive verbal 
abstract. 

' Reason,' an Abstract noun. 

22. ' Cholera,' Singular noun, name of disease : ' ravages,' 
here a General noun, originally Abstract, active, verbal. 

23. ' Lime,' noun of Material. 
' Ingredient,' General noun. 

' Soils,' here a General noun, meaning kinds or varieties of 
soil; originally a noun of Material (see Gram. p. 36), 

24. ' Front,' an Abstract noun. 

' Ranks/ here a Collective noun, denoting the men ranked 
in a body. ' Rank,' in the singular, is an Abstract noun, a 
passive verbal, like ' produce,' meaning e what is ranked,' with- 
out regard to anything but the fact that it is ranked. 

' Charge,' an Abstract noun. 

' Russian,' a General noun, not a proper name, though spelt 
with a capital. 'Russian' means ' an inhabitant of Russia,' 
and is a general name for every such inhabitant. 

* Squadron-leader,' a General noun. 

25. 'The Arminian controversy,' 'the English Govern- 
ment,' 'the English Church,' ' the Calvinistic party,' are 
examples of Singular names formed by the combination of 
several significant names. 

' Controversy,' and 'support,' are Abstract nouns : 'govern- 



EXERCISE ON NOUNS GENERALLY. 27 

ment,' 'church,' and e party,' are Collective nouns. ' Holland' 
is a strictly Singular noun, a name for a single country : we 
cannot apply it to any other place without an epithet, as c New 
Holland.' The same word is also a family name, and a name 
of material (fine linen) ; and c hollands ' is a name for Dutch gin '• 
but when ' Holland ' is used alone, we at once think of the 
country so called. 

26. c March,' ' April,' Singular nouns, names of months : 
' the Houses of Parliament,' a mixed Singular name, like 
' Exeter Hall,' partly significant, partly meaningless. ' Parlia. 
ment ' itself was originally significant, but it has lost its mean- 
ing, and is now a meaningless designation for the supreme 
council of the English nation. It is sometimes used as a 
General noun by a figure of speech. 

27. ' Carbon,' noun of Material : ' element,' General : 
'plants,' General. 

28. 'Wheat,' noun of Material: 'grain,'— see No. 10, 'fruit:' 
' oats,' a simple noun of Material, though plural in form. 

29. ' Frost,' Abstract noun : ' appearance,' Abstract, active 
verbal : ' the northern lights,' a Singular name, made by a 
combination of significant names, one of them (an unusual 
case) plural : ' certainty,' abstract. 

30. ' Keport,' an Abstract noun, here used as a General noun. 
' Committee,' Collective noun, restricted by the adjective 

' Select,' and the phrase ' of the House of Commons.' 

1 The House of Commons,' see above, No. 26, ■ the Houses 

of Parliament.' 

1 State,' ' education, ' ' amount,' ' information,' ' increase, 1 

' decency,' ' deportment,' are all Abstract nouns. 



THE PRONOUN. 

Answers to Questions— (p. 55). 

Q. 1 . The Pronoun— 
Agrees with the Noun in the following : — 

I. Essential Points. 

1. It may be Subject or Object of a sentence. 

2. It may be inflected for Gender, Number, or Case. 

II. Minor Points. 

1. It may be used with a Preposition to make a phrase. 

2. It may be used to complete a Predicate. 

3. It is sometimes used instead of an Adjective : as in ' he- 

goat,' e she-goat.' 
Differs from the Noun in the following : — 

1. It does not name an Object, but refers to a name. 

The above is a full scheme of the agreements and differences 
between the Pronoun and the Noun. The first agreement 
alone may be considered enough for the beginner. It may be 
said in general terms that the Pronoun has all the defining 
marks of the Noun except that it refers and does not name. 

Q. 2. Generally speaking, to see whom 'he' denotes, we 
must look to what has gone before. Occasionally, the word 
referred to comes after, as — ' He fell in her arms, the poor 
wounded hussar. 3 



QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN. 29 

Q. 3. In applying the definition to the Personal Prononns, 
the great point to impress is that they are not names of actual 
objects, and that before we know whom or what they desig- 
nate, we must look to the circumstances. The small print in 
Grammar, p. 42, is a specimen of the sort of explanation re- 
quired. Of course, in applying the definition to this or to any 
other class of Pronouns, the teacher may, if he thiDks it neces- 
sary, repeat all the points of agreement and difference tabulated 
in answer to Q. 1. 

Q. 4. This question is a sample of questions very useful in 
bringing out what may be called the referential character of 
the Pronouns. — Who are denoted by we ? The person 
speaking and his associates. ' You are too anxious' — Who 
are denoted by you ? The persons addressed. If we open a 
page of a book, and find the pronoun f I,' do we know at once 
who is denoted ? No. Where do we look to discover who it 
is ; what do we refer to ? We refer to the title-page to see 
the name of the writer of the book." 

Q. 7. The first-named reference of ' it ' is uncertain, when 
two nouns go before, either of which may be the one referred 
to. In such cases we have no means of deciding the true re- 
ference, except by considering the sense of the passage. 

To help the memory, the teacher may write the various 
modes of reference of * it ' upon the black-board, in some such 
form as this : — 

Modes of Beference of the Pronoun 'It.' 

I. Backward Reference, 

(1) to a single word. 

(2) to a clause. 

II. Forward Reference, 

to a phrase or a clause. 
III. Indefinite Reference. 



30 THE PRONOUN. 

Q. 13. * One ' and < they ' are the chief Indefinite Demon- 
stratives. ' Other' is also pretty frequently used. In the 
larger Grammar (p. 21), several adjectives are enumerated 
that are used in almost the same way. 

Q. 14. In such expressions as— c One does not know what 
to do in such a position,' ' one ' is thoroughly Indefinite in its 
reference, pointing to nothing in the context, either before or 
after : any special reference that it has is to the person speak- 
ing or the person addressed, in which cases it is an inoffen- 
sive substitute for a Personal pronoun. In this use it may be 
called an Indefinite Personal pronoun. In the other use it is 
more of a Numeral pronoun, with a reference back : — ' How 
very nice those story-books are ; I should like to have one. 1 
In this last case, however, the reference is also indefinite : it 
is not one particular book that is wanted, but any one. The 
difference between the two uses may be succinctly stated 
thus: — In the first case, 'one' is a politely Indefinite Per- 
sonal pronoun, with no reference to the context ; in the second 
case, c one ' is an indefinite Numeral pronoun, with a reference 
back to the context. 

Q. 15. ' The one is deaf, the other blind.' In the saying — 
He has other property, ' other ' is not a Pronoun, but an Ad- 
jective. The Pronoun stands alone, the Adjective takes a 
noun along with it. 

Q. 17. A Relative pronoun, besides referring to an object 
like a Personal or a Demonstrative pronoun, serves the pur- 
pose of uniting sentences, or clauses, like a Conjunction. 
' John, who is usually a steady shot, missed the target four 
times running. ' Here ' who,' referring back to John, and so 
answering the definition of a Pronoun, unites two sentences, 
and so is distinguished from other Pronouns. This function 



QUESTIONS ON THE PRONOUN. 31 

of uniting two sentences is the Relative's peculiar * differ- 
ence ' or distinction among the Pronouns. 

Qq. 19-21. The teacher should take pains to enforce the dis- 
tinction between co-ordination and restriction. To say that 
two co-ordinated statements are independent of each other, 
have no connection at all, would be putting it too strongly. 
Perhaps the remark most intelligible and best fitted to bring 
out the distinction, is that the Restrictive statement, the sen- 
tence or clause introduced by the Eestrictive relative, is neces- 
sary to signify who or what is denoted by the word referred 
to, the antecedent ; while on the other hand, the Co-ordiuate 
statement, the sentence or clause introduced by the Co-or- 
dinating relative, is some additional information about a person 
or thing already known. The expression • the man,' does not 
signify definitely a certain individual : we need the Restric- 
tive clause ' that I called on,' merely to complete the designa- 
tion : 'the man that I called on/ is all required to name the 
individual. So with other examples of Restrictive clauses. 
On the other hand, the expression, * The Duke of Wellington,' 
is sufficient to denote the individual : the clause, ' who com- 
manded the English armies in the Peninsula/ gives addi- 
tional information. This information may be said to be co- 
ordinate with the information of the other member of the 
sentence, ' never lost a battle ; ' that is to say, neither state- 
ment is required to let us know who is signified by ' The Duke 
of Wellington/ 

Q. 22. ' We pursue what pleases us,' — the thing that 
pleases us, or the things that please us. Though ' what ' is 
singular, it may have a plural reference. 

Q. 23. l Such as,' and ' but ' are always restrictive : ' when," 



32 THE PRONOUN. 

' where,' and ' whence/ are sometimes restrictive, sometimes 
co-ordinating. 

' It is a nice situation for such as love variety ' — such per- 
sons as the persons that love variety. 

c There is no man but likes to have respect shown to him ; ' 
that does not like. ' But ' is equivalent to ' that not,' and 
always comes after a negative. The full expression of the 
meaning is — f There is no man but the man that likes to have 
respect shown to him : ' that is, excluding all such men, you 
have no man left. 

Q. 24. An Interrogative pronoun is virtually a Relative 
pronoun with the antecedent or word referred to left in- 
definite. It is a real Pronoun, inasmuch as it indicates by a 
reference : it refers to some person, thing, or fact unknown, 
and which the questioner wishes to be known. 

Exercise 7. 

Pronouns generally. 

The teacher will do well to make his pupils distinguish all 
the Nouns as well as the Pronouns in these Exercises. Gener- 
ally, in each Exercise, the pupils should be drilled to the full 
extent of their previous knowledge. 

1. c The evils that it has caused,' 'the evils that it has re- 
moved.' The two its are examples of the first reference of 1 
' it,' the backward reference to a single word, that word (the 
« antecedent ') being * revolution.' The thats are here pro- 
perly Restrictive in both cases : the whole phrase is required to 
signify the evils intended ; the whole class of evils is narrowed 
or restricted to these smaller classes, * the evils caused by a 
revolution,' and ' the evils removed by a revolution.' 



EXERCISE ON PRONOUNS GENERALLY. 33 

2. ' That ' is here also the correct relative : the clause 
' that was full of people ' is designed to point us to one par- 
ticular city. If the expression had been — 'Jerusalem, which 
was full of people, is now solitary ;' the clause would have been 
co-ordinate, and ' which ' the proper Relative : Jerusalem 
fully designating the city of that name, and the clause giving 
us additional information. In that case, to use the other Re- 
lative — ' that was full of people,' would have implied that 
there were more than one Jerusalem, and that this fact was 
necessary to distinguish the one from the other. 

3. ' They say,' an example of ' they ' as an Indefinite De- 
monstrative. 

' This ' is here a Pronoun : we may, if we please, parse it 
as an Adjective with 'place understood, but the usage is 
essentially pronominal — it expresses a place by a reference to 
the position of the speaker or writer. 

' It ' refers back to the whole preceding clause. 

4. { Which ' here refers to the action of crossing the Pruth. 

5. ' What,' equivalent to c the thing that.' 

6. The only difficulty among these simple JPronouns is the 
reference of c it ' — ' as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it* The 
antecedent of ' it ' is ■ the fact that he was fortunate ' (Mode 
of Reference I. 2). 

7. We have no means of knowing the reference of ' him. ' 
( That ' refers to the whole preceding question. 

8. ' What' is here not a Pronoun, but an Adjective, having 
the noun f sign ' along with it. The reference of ' it' is some- 
what indefinite ; being a forward reference to the whole sub- 
sequent clause. 



34 THE PRONOUN. 

9. ' Such as,' a restrictive relative, the full expression being 
' such a prize as the prize that.' 

' It/ backward reference to single word. 
'That,' restrictive relative, antecedent 'prize.' 
1 1.' To make younger pupils familiar with the idea, the 
teacher ^should ask — What is the reference of 'I ' ? or, Whom 
does ' I ' refer to ? the answer expected being — the person 
speaking. So with the other Personal Pronouns, as 'them' and 
' us ' in the next example. If there is no antecedent given, 
we have no means of knowing who it is that third personal 
pronouns refer to ; but the first and the second, representing 
the person or persons addressing and the person or persons ad- 
dressed, can always be assigned. 

10. 'It,' forward reference to clause— 'that much was use- 
ful &c.' 

' That,' restrictive. ' Which was useful,' would here be 
wrong. 

11. ' That,' a demonstrative pronoun. This is one of the 
few constructions where ' that ' is undeniably pronominal : we 
cannot well in this case suppose a noun understood, and treat 
' that ' as an adjective. 

' Themselves,' reflective demonstrative. 

12. This sentence from Scott contains a correct use of the 
co-ordinating relative. 'The willow' is sufficient to let us 
know the object intended : ' which bends to the tempest,' is 
a statement about an object already in our eye. So with ' the 
oak,' and its co-ordinating relative. To say — ' the willow that 
beuds to the tempest,' would imply that there are varieties of 
willow, and that this circumstance of bending to the tempest 
distinguishes one of them. 

There are two possible antecedents to ' it ;' namely, ' wil- 



EXERCISE ON PRONOUNS GENERALLY. 35 

low ■ and ■ tempest. ' We know, from the sense, that c tem- 
pest ' is the real one. 

13. A sentence from Matthew Arnold, illustrating the re- 
petition of the indefinite personal demonstrative c one.' 

14. Eeferenee of ' he ' is unknown, so far as the text shows. 
The sentence is from Addison, and the affirmation is made con- 
cerning c the man of taste,' to whom, therefore, c he ' refers. 

1 As it were/ ' it ' of indefinite reference. 

' Discovers in it ,' reference I. 1, antecedent c world.' 

15. ' This,' having a nonn along with it, is here an adjective. 

16. ' It,' forward reference to the clause — c that one begins 
to consider, &c.' 

1 When ' is here a relative adverb, not a pronoun. 

18. c But was,' equivalent to l that was not.' There is 
always a negative before e but ' when it is used for a relative : 
perhaps, indeed, we should state the usage by saying that 
1 nothing but was,' is equivalent to * nothing that was not.' 

19. ' Himself,' ' others,' and * they,' will all be easily recog- 
nised. We know from the sense that the antecedent of e they ' 
is ' thoughts : ' there is nothing in the form to prevent its 
being 'others.' 

20. ' It,' forward reference to clause — \ that you, my boy 
Ac* 

4 You, my boy,' an instance of the word referred to being 
actually supplied. * You,' is here, of course, singular. 

' Where,' equivalent to ' that . . . in :' the equivalent 
of a restrictive relative. 

' Myself.' In parsing these Eefiectives, the pupil should be 
made to say whether they are Demonstrative or Fii&t or 
Second Personal. 



36 THE PRONOUN. 

21. This illustrates the distinction between the co-ordinat- 
ing and the restrictive relatives. The clauses accompanying 
c morass ' are supposed merely to fill out an idea already par- 
tially given by the word ; the clause attached to landscape 
singles out a particular kind of landscape. 

22. 'It,' forward reference to the clause that states the con- 
fession — ' that great and splendid actions &c.' 

'That leaves no room for them,' is a restrictive clause, 
narrowing the general extent of the word ' system,' to systems 
of a special kind. 

6 They,' simple backward reference. 

e Where,' has here a similar force to what it has in No. 20. 

23. 'Which are themselves.' Had e that' been used, the 
effect would have been to restrict the class animals to such as 
are incapable of artj implying that certain animals are cap- 
able of art, and that in their case nature is superseded. 

24. ' No writer but must,' ( no writer that must not.' 
* But ' an equivalent for the restrictive relative and a nega- 
tive. 

25. A good example of ' that ' as an unquestionable pro- 
noun referring back to all that precedes. In ' this downfall,' 
' this ' is an adjective. 

26. e But ' is not properly a relative here, but a conjunction 
equivalent to the conjunction ' that ' followed by e not ' — ' no 
cliff is so bare that on its steep thy favours may not be found.' 
It would be an error to take £ cliff ' as the antecedent of ' but,' 
though one is inclined to do so at first sight. 

27. The ' that not ' equivalent of { but ' is here properly re- 
lative. 



EXERCISE OX PRONOUNS GENERALLY. 37 

28. Illustrates the forward reference of ' it ' to a clause, and 
the latitude allowed to e it 5 as a word of reference. It here 
refers to a person, in an indefinite way. 

29. The clause introduced by e that * particularises ( the 
raven ;' restricts the class to one particular individual. 

30. ' Who ' introduces a strictly co-ordinate clause, a clause 
that does nothing to render the application of the antecedent 
c host ' more particular, but makes a statement about an indi- 
vidual already particularised. 

31. A similar remark may be made about c which ' in this 
sentence. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

Answers to Questions — (p .73). 

Q. 1. In applying the definition of the Adjective to any 
particular Adjective, our plan must be to choose a Noun and 
show how this is increased in meaning and limited in extent 
"by the given Adjective. 

Take, for example, the noun c eye ' and the adjective e bright.' 
When ' bright ' is joined to c eye/ the expression — ' bright 
eye ' — means more than ' eye ' alone, and applies to fewer 
objects : to have a bright eye is more than to have simply an 
eye, and fewer persons have bright eyes. The word c bright/ 
having thus the effect of increasing the meaning and narrow- 
ing the application, is called an adjective. 

Similarly, c a square pane' means more than 'a pane* 
simply, but there are fewer ' square panes' than 'panes.' So the 
expression — e a good man,' lets us know more than the expres- 
sion, c a man,' but it applies to fewer individuals. In all such 
cases the extra word adds to the meaning of the noun, but at 
the same time it makes the noun applicable to fewer indivi- 
duals. It is called an Adjective as being a word 'thrown to' 
a noun. 

Q. 2. The Adjective is distinguished from the Noun in not 
being admissible as Subject or Object of a Sentence. The 
Sentence is separated into two great divisions — Subject and 
Predicate : the leading word in the first of these divisions is 



QUESTIONS ON TEE ADJECTIVE. 39 

the Noun. The adjective is Imt a helping word, a subordi- 
nate ; it cannot by itself be a subject ; it merely adds to the 
meaning of the Noun. 

This is the broad distinction. When the pupil comes to 
Inflection, he will find minuter differences. Nouns are in- 
flected for Gender, Number, and Case : Adjectives are inflected 
only for Degree. 

The same points distinguish the Adjective from the Pro- 
noun. 

Q. 3. The teacher should write a scheme of the Classes on 
the black-board, thus : — 

I. Pronominal Adjectives. 

1. Demonstratives. 

2. Possessives. 

II. Adjectives of Quantity. 

1. Quantity in Mass or Bulk. 

2. Quantity in Number. 

(1) Definite Numerals. 

(2) Indefinite Numerals. 

(3) Distributive Numerals. 
til. Adjectives of Quality. 

Time, Space, Form, Motion, Solidity, Fluidity, Colour, 

Good and Evil, &c. 
Proper Adjectives. 

By way of exercise, he might single out a class, and ask the 
pupil to mention individual words contained under it ; or 
mention a word, and ask under what class it comes. 

Adjectives of Quality are by far the most numerous class. 

Q. 4. In showing that Pronominal Adjectives come under 
the definition, we follow the same plan as before. Take the 



40 THE ADJECTIVE. 

noun 'book.' We add to the meaning of the word when we 
call it ■ my book,' or ■ his book/ or f this book ; ' and we con- 
sequently narrow the application. Only a limited nnmber of 
books can be called ' my book ' or s his book,' and ' this book ' 
can be applied bnt to one at a time. 

5. 'This' and 'that' are called correlative words be- 
cause when one of them is applied to a word, we know that the 
other cannot be applied at the same time. The same book 
cannot be at once ' this book,' and c that book.' ' Up ' and 
* down/ f long ' and ' short,' c straight ' and e crooked/ are simi- 
lar c: pairs. A thing may be ' crooked/ and 'hard,' 
and ■ yellow/ and * sweet ; ' these words are not correVr 
bat it cannot be both ' crooked ' and ' straight.' 

Q. 6. Yonr, his, its, their — are called Pronominal Possessive 
Adjectives, because they are the possessives of pronouns. 

7 Much* and 'great/ are Adjectives of Quanth 
Mass or Bulk. * Some ' and c any ' are Adjectives of Quantity 
in Mass in such expressions a3 { some food/ ' any w& & 
Adjec lantity incumber (Indefinite) in such expres- 

sions as ■ some houses/ ' any trees.' 

show that they comply with the definition as before, 
upon 3uch instances as * much pleasure/ ' great sorrow/ ' some 
houses/ c any trees : ' in all which cases the Noun by itself means 
less and applies to a greater number of individual cases. 

To show that they cannot be Nouns we may point out that 
they are not used a 3 subjects or a3 objects of sentences. This 
we can do for ' much/ ' great/ and ' any.' But in such a 
sentence a consented, others would not,' 'some' 

appears as the subject of a verb. Applying, therefore, the 
second test in the definition of the Noun, we see that ■ some 
i3 not a Noun, not being the name of an actual thing. Is it 



QUESTIONS ON THE ADJECTIVE. 41 

then a Pronouu ? Does it name a thing or things by a refer- 
ence ? In such cases probably it may be put down, like 
1 others,' as an Indefinite Demonstrative Pronoun. If not, it 
must be considered as an Adjective with its Noun 'persons' 
understood. 

Q. 8. 'Five,' 'third/ 'triple,' are Adjectives of Quantity, 
Definite Numeral; five — cardinal, third — ordinal, triple — 
multiplying. They may be shown to comply with the de- 
finition in such instances as ' five apples,' ' the third row,' 
' triple allowance ; ' which expressions mean more, and are 
applied less widely than e apples,' ' row,' ' allowance.' 

Q. 11. ' Either ' is often misapplied for ' each.' It is in- 
correct to say — c There is a pillar on either side of the gate,' 
when we mean that there are two pillars, one on each side : 
the proper word is ' each.' ' Either ' means one of two, but 
not both. Milton's expression — 

Before Hell's gate there sat 
On either side a formidable shape — 
is incorrect : ' each side ' is the correct grammar, though it 
would make wrong metre. 

Q. 13. To apply the definition, all that is necessary is to 
quote instances where the given Adjectives occur along with 
Nouns, and to point out that they have the effect stated as the 
defining mark of the Adjective. The teacher should make 
sure that the pupils understand as clearly as possible what is 
meant by narrowing the class and increasing the meaning : 
the idea so simple to a grown up person may be a little 
perplexing to the youthful mind. The narrowing of the class is 
perhaps the simplest idea : and the easiest way of approaching 
this is to point out that you apply the noun (e.g. man) to 



42 THE ADJECTIVE. 

everything called by that name, while you can apply the noun 
along with the adjective {e.g. tall man) to only a section, a 
portion, of the things called by the name. 

Q. 14. l Old ' is not a Pronominal Adjective, nor is it an 
Adjective of Quantity : it is therefore an Adjective of Quality. 
Similarly with c rapid,' * smooth/ and c pleasant/ 

Q. 15. Proper Adjectives are classed among Adjectives of 
Quality in the same way : they are neither Pronominal Adjec- 
tives, nor Adjectives of Quantity, therefore they are con- 
sidered Adjectives of Quality. 

Q. 16, 17. The examples here may be treated like those in 
the Grammar. ' The man,' is some particular man that we 
have been talking of or otherwise denoting ; { the table/ some 
particular table that we have for the time to do with ; e the 
church/ the church that we are in the habit of attending. 

Q. 18. The teacher should write these on the black-board 
in column, thus : — 

1. An Adjective Clause. 

2. A Participial Phrase. 

3. A Noun. 

4. A Prepositional Phrase- 

5. A Possessive Case. 

6. An Adverb. 

Q. 19. ' The man that is rich.' 

Q. 20. The Participial Phrase 'either is or resembles a 
shortened Adjective Clause. It is derived from the Clause by 
omitting the relative and changing the verb into a Participle., 
thus— Every man that has an interest (Clause) ; Every man 
having an interest (Part. Phrase). 



QUESTIONS ON THE ADJECTIVE. 43 

Q. 21. 'London Weekly Express.' 'London* and ' Weekly, 
as they stand, are nsed as Adjectives. Ordinarily, 'London* 
is a noun, and ' weekly ' an adverb. The expression may be 
viewed as a compression, condensation, or shortening of 
clauses : the full expression being — The Express that is pub- 
lished weekly in London. 

Q. 22. A Prepositional Phrase standing in place of an 
adjective, as — f the cottage by the sea,' is properly viewed as 
an Adverbial phrase (or phrase used instead of an Adverb), 
qualifying a verb understood, as — 'the cottage situated (or 
built) by the sea.' The Participial Phrase being viewed as a 
contraction of the Adjective Clause, the Prepositional Phrase 
is a still farther contraction, the verb, as well as the relative, 
being omitted altogether from the full expression — the cottage 
that is situated by the sea. 

Q. 23. On a similar principle the Possessive Case also is 
viewed as a contraction from the Clause : Jacob's ladder=the 
ladder that was seen by Jacob j Time's revenge=the revenge 
that is taken by Time. 

Q. 24. As in the case of the Prepositional Phrase — the equi- 
valent of an Adverb, so in the case of the Adverb itself, when 
used in place of an Adjective, we suppose an omission of a 
Yerb : thus — the early bird=the bird that is awake early. 

Q. 25. The fields are wet ; the road is dirty ; the fence is 
strong. The Yerb in such cases is incomplete, conveys no 
meaning without the Adjective. 

Q. 26. A Kestrictive Adjective is an adjective that narrows 
the application of a noun, restricts it to a smaller class or to 
an individual : whereas a Co-ordinate Adjective adds to the 
meaning without narrowing or otherwise affecting the extent 



44 THE ADJECTIVE. 

of the class. An Adjective in the Predicate must always be 
co-ordinate, because the class is always specified in the words 
of the Subject, indeed, is the Subject : the purpose of the 
Predicate is not to restrict, but to make a statement about a 
class already restricted. 'Marine animals are cold* — the 
adjective c cold ' does not restrict the subject c marine animals, 
but adds a fact about them : the expression c cold marine ani- 
mals ' applies to just the same number of individuals as 
c marine animals.' Similarly in the other example; 'costly' 
does not restrict, but adds or co-ordinates ; ' costly old wine ' 
is applicable to everything that ' old wine ' is applicable to. 

The Predicate Adjective can restrict only a noun expressed 
or understood in the Predicate, In the above examples, 
* cold ' restricts c animals ' understood in the Predicate : 
c costly ' restricts c wine ' understood. The class c cold ani- 
mals ' is smaller than the class c animals j ' ' costly wine ' is 
of narrower application than c wine : ' but the class { cold ani- 
mals ' is not narrower than the class c marine animals ; ' nor 
is 'costly wine ' of narrower application than ' old wine.' 

Q. 27. An Adjective going along with a Proper or Singular 
name cannot be restrictive. The Singular name already de- 
notes an individual, and its application cannot be farther 
restricted. The adjective in such a case must superadd mean- 
ing, that is, must be Co-ordinate. 

Exercise 8— (p. 60). 

Pronominal Adjectives. 
This Exercise is prescribed for Pronominal Adjectives, but 
others occur, and these are here referred to their classes. The 
teacher may go back upon the Exercise when he has taken 
his pupils over the remaining classes. 



EXERCISE ON PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 45 

1. 'This,' Pronominal demonstrative: c its/ Pronominal 
possessive. 

'One/ Adj. of Quantity, definite numeral: ' all/ Adj. of 
Quantity, indefinite numeral : ' firm,' Adj. of Quality, solidity. 

2. 'That/ Pronominal demonstrative: 'our/ Pronominal 



' Spear wound.' This is an example of a noun used as an 
adjective. It may be viewed as a contraction for c wound 
made by a spear/ 

3. 'Those/ 'that/ Pronominal demonstratives, plural and 
singular. 

'Rugged/ Adj. of Quality, form : 'yew-tree's/ a Possessive 
Case, a substitute for an Adjective — yew-tree's shade=shade 
made by a yew-tree. 

4. An example to show the use of ' this ' and ' that ' as cor- 
relatives or contrasting words. The teacher might ask — 
What are ' this ' and ' that ' said to be when used in this way ? 

'Open/ Adj. of Quality, properly used concerning space, 
here used in what is called a figure of speech. 

5. ' Yon/ Pronominal demonstrative : ' her/ Pronominal 
possessive. 

' Own ' may be parsed separately as an Adjective of Quality, 
but really it is never used but with the Possessive Pronouns, 
to make up an intensified form. 

6. 'Yonder/ Pronominal demonstrative. 

7. 'Their/ 'your/ Pronominal possessives. 'Yours/ is 
the predicate form of ' your : ' here, however, it is not in the 
predicate. Thi3 is an example of another use of ' yours ' 
instead of ' your ; ' namely, when the noun it restricts has 



46 THE ADJECTIVE. 

occurred before, and is not repeated with it. In such a 
position it is really as much a pronoun as an Adjective. 
The following are other examples of the same usage of Posses- 
sive Adjectives : — My coat is brown, yours is black : his horses 
are grey, theirs are chesnut : his eyes were dark, hers were 
light blue. 

8. ' This/ Pronominal demonstrative : ' his/ Pronominal 
possessive. 

Exercise 9— (p. 62). 
Adjectives of Quantity. 

1. c Small/ « great/ Mass or Bulk. 

2. c Enormous/ Mass or Bulk. 

3. c Every/ Distributive Numeral: 'little/ Mass or Bulk. 

4. e Much/ Mass or Bulk : c forty/ and ' three/ Definite 
Numerals, Cardinal. 'Another/ is so far a Definite Numeral, 
meaning ' one other ' : but it is also so far indefinite, inasmuch 
as it means ' any one other.' 

5. ' Seven/ Definite Numeral, Cardinal : c fifteenth/ 
c seventh/ Definite Numerals, Ordinal. 

6. ' All/ ' few/ Indefinite Numerals. 

7. * Several/ here a Distributive Numeral. Upon such an 
opportunity as this, the pupil should be asked to give an 
example of c several ' used as an Indefinite Numeral, such as 
— ' It is several days since I have seen you : ' c several trees 
are in blossom/ 

'Each.' The pupil should here be passed through some 
such drill as is given in answer to Q. 11. 

8. ' The two large rods.' Here we have an example of 
three Adjectives used together for the purpose of restricting 



EXERCISE ON ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY. 4/ 

or specifying. * Large ' restricts as regards the Mass or 
Bulk : ' two ' restricts as regards the Number : and the 
definite article c the/ a weakened form of the demonstrative 
' that,' calls attention to certain - two large rods ' in particular. 
' Either of the two,' implies that I do not want both : had 
'each' been used, the meaning would have been that both 
were wanted. 

9. c The five rooms on the second floor.' c Five,' a Definite 
numeral, is here an example of a co-ordinate Adjective. ■ The 
rooms on the second floor,' is suflicient for purposes of restric- 
tion : this expression alone lets us know the rooms intended. 
That they are five in number is a piece of extra information, 
co-ordinated by the Adjective ' five.' ' On the second floor,' 
is a prepositional phrase, used in place of an Adjective ; the 
full expression being — c situated on the second floor/ 

1 Smaller,' is an example of the Comparative Degree, which 
may be mentioned by anticipation. 

10. A good example to bring out the distinction between 
1 all ' and ' every.' 

11. e Several ' is here the Indefinite Numeral. Refer back 
to No. 7. 

12 c Certain,' Indefinite Numeral. 

c Swimming ' is an example of a peculiar substitute for the 
Adjective, namely, the form of the Infinitive called the Gerund. 
The full expression is 'a bladder for swimming.' C A swim- 
ming bladder ' does not mean c a bladder that swims.' 

13. A sentence illustrating a peculiar distributive couple, 
1 the one — the other. ' c The other,' in this case, viewed by 
itself, may be considered an Ordinal Numeral, signifying the 






48 THE ADJECTIVE. 

second of two : the effect of the two phrases together is dis- 
tributive. 

16. Another case of the couple, ' one — other.' c Short/ 
' scanty,' Adjs. of Quantity in Mass or Bulk. 

* Short ' is an example of an Adjective in the predicatej 
' fall ' being here an incomplete verb. 

' Abed " contracted from ' on bed,' must be parsed as the 
equivalent of an Adjective of Quality. 

' When you are abed. ' This is a case where the Indefinite 
Pronoun ' one ' would be a more polite form of expression — 
' when one is abed. ' 

17. e One ' in this case has very little more force than the 
Indefinite Article ' a.' 

' Horrible,' is an Adjective of Quality, the kind being — 
'pleasure and pain' (see The Adverb, p. 86.) 

18. ' Narrow,' ' petty,' ' huge,' Quantity in Mass or Bulk. 

20. An example of the Distributive couple, ' one — another.' 

c Of a house,' is a prepositional phrase, serving the purpose 

of an Adjective, the full expression being — ' belonging to a 

house.' f A,' the indefinite article, in this case has the full 

force of the numeral ' one.' Compare above, No. 17 

Exercise 10— (p. 71). 

Adjectives Generally. 

It is presumed that the teacher will have no difficulty 
in distinguishing Pronominal Adjectives, and Adjectives of 
Quantity ; the following remarks, therefore, point rather to 
other distinctions. 

1. 'Better,' 'guilty,' and 'innocent,' are Adjectives of 
Quality, Good and Evil. 



EXERCISE ON ADJECTIVES GENERALLY. 49 

' Better ' is farther an example of a Comparative, and of 
an Adjective in the Predicate. 

2. ' Blameless,' ' good,' Adjs. of Quality, Good and Evil : 
c old,' Adj. of Quality, Time. It would be well now and 
again to ask the pupil how he knows whether a given Adjec- 
tive is an Adjective of Quality. (See Grammar, p. 63, and 
above, q. 14). 

1 Good ' is a co-ordinate Adjective : ' old' is the restrictive 
or specifying Adjective'. 

3. ' Foremost,' Quality, Space. 

* The foremost man of all this world,' is a singular designa- 
tion made up of significant names. The pupil might be asked 
whether there is any superfluous word in this expression. 
The ' all ' might be dispensed with. 

4. ' Holy/ ' heavenly,' Quality, Good and Evil. 

5. 'Sloane,' a Noun used for an Adjective, a contracted 
form of expression for ' the Collection that was made by 
Sloane. ' 

' British,' being neither Pronominal nor Quantity, must be 
parsed as an Adj. of Quality. Of the leading classes given, it 
has most connection with that of Space. 

6. 'Koast,' Adj. of Quality. 

'The roast beef of Old England.' 'The,' ' roast,' and 'of 
Old England,' are all restrictive, all required to indicate the 
particular article intended. 

' Of Old England,' is a prepositional phrase, used as an 
Adjective, equivalent to the Adjective clause ' that belongs to 
Old England/ 

'Old England's roast beef.' 'Old England's' is another 
equivalent for the same clause, a possessive case. 



50 THE ADJECTIVE. 

7. 'The choice and master spirits of his age. 1 The prepo- 
sitional phrase c of his age,' restricts the already limited class 
to one particular generation. ' Choice ' is an Adj. of Quality : 
1 master,' a noun substitute for an Adjective, equivalent to 
' masterly,' or to the clause * that had the mastery.' 

8. 'Anxious,' 'pensive,' Adjs. of Quality, sub-division— 
Pleasure and Pain (See Adverb, p. 86). ' Secret,' Adj. of 
Quality. The pupil may here be reminded that the classes of 
Adjectives of Quality given in the Grammar are not exhaus- 
tive ; and that the classes of Adverbs are also classes of 
Adjectives, and inversely. 

9. ' Living in the country,' participial phrase, serving in 
place of an Adjective, equivalent to the clause 'that live.' 
'Living' might be omitted, and thus the participial phrase 
would be contracted to a prepositional phrase. This illus- 
trates how an Adverbial Phrase of Place, is by the omission 
of its verb, left alone as an Adjective Phrase. For a farther 
compression of the phrase, see below, No. 12. 

' Town made ' is a compressed participial phrase, from 
' made in town. ' ' Made ' might be omitted, and then ' town ' 
would stand alone, a noun used in place of an Adjective. 

6 Retail traders,' 'traders thai sell in retail,' a Noun used 
for an Adjective. 

' The retail traders of the neighbourhood.' All the three 
adjuncts are restrictive. ' Of the neighbourhood,' is a prepo- 
sitional phrase, equivalent to the clause, ' that belong to the 
neighbourhood.' 

10. ' Whose birth beyond all question springs from great 
and glorious, though forgotten kings,' is an adjective clause, 
restricting ' boys.' 



EXERCISE ON ADJECTIVES GENERALLY. 51 

In such an expression as c great and glorions Alexander,' 
— these Adjectives are co-ordinate; but here they restrict kings, 
narrow the whole class of kings to those possessing these 
attributes. 

11. In f mighty Nimrod,' 'mighty* (an Adj. of Quality) is 
co-ordinate, filling in the attributes of an individual already 
specified : but here it is used to restrict the class ' hunter.' 
' Mighty hunters,' is a smaller class than ' hunters.' 

12. ' Country cousins,' ' town frionds.' Here we have a 
farther contraction of the participial phrase ' living in the 
country.' ' Country,' and ' town,' are parsed as Nouns used 
in place of Adjectives : and viewed as contractions from the 
clauses — 'that live in the country,' and 'that live in the 
town.' 

• Unwelcome,' Adj. of Quality, Pleasure and Pain. 

13. Point out that the Predicate Adjective ' great' does not 
restrict 'these little things' in the subject, but 'things' 
understood in the predicate. 

14. ' Pious,' Adj. of Quality, Good and Evil. ' Closing,' 
equivalent to ' when it closes,' a participle used as an Adjec- 
tive. 

15. ' This face of mine ' — another instance of the predicate 
form of the possessive Adjective. The rule seems to be that 
this form is used wherever the Possessive Adjective is not 
followed by the noun it restricts. 

' Deeper,' Adj. of Quality, Space, comparative degree. 

16. ' Every ' is more emphatic than ' all : ' meaning ' all ' 
taken separately, ' every ' brings the statement home, as it 
were, to the individual. 



52 THE ADJECTIVE. 

' Upon this earth,' is a prepositional adjective phrase. We 
may suppose the omission of ' that lives.' 

17. 'Sensible/ Adj. of Quality. ' Great,' 'that/ 'one/ 
' twenty/ are easy cases. 

18. * Battled/ Adj. of Quality. [The proper Adjective is 
1 battlemented/ or ' embattled : ' ' battled ' is a poetic form.] 

' Donjon/ one would suppose from the form to be a Noun 
used for an Adjective, restricting a more general designation 
in the word ' keep.' Really, however, ' donjon ' and ' keep ' 
are different names for the same thing. 

' Loophole grates/ Noun used as Adjective, equivalent pro- 
bably to the clause — ' grates that were placed over loopholes/ 

' Where captives weep/ an Adjective clause. This clause 
is co-ordinate, not restrictive : ' the loophole grates ' indicates 
the place, and the clause separates a circumstance. 

'Flanking/ parsed like 'closing' (14). 

' That round it sweep/ Adjective clause, must be taken as 
co-ordinate, if we suppose the particular walls to be already 
denoted. In that case, ' which ' is the proper relative. 

19. ' High/ Adj. of Quality, Space. 

'Midsummer/ Noun used as Adjective; 'midsummer 
pomps '=' pomps that appear in midsummer.' Both 'high' 
and ' midsummer ' are restrictive : without either we should 
not know the ' pomps ' intended : ' high ' points us to the 
splendours of the sky, and ' midsummer ' to the skyey splen- 
dours of a particular time of year. 

20. ' Mine/ predicate form. 

' The heart that can itself defend? Adjective clause, restric- 
tive. 

21. ' Loud,' Adj. of Quality, Sound. 



EXERCISE ON ADJECTIVES GENERALLY. 53 

' That spoke the vacant mind.' ' That ' is the restrictive 
relative, and we may take the clause as specifying a parti- 
cular kind of ' loud laugh.' Had the relative been ' which/ the 
meaning would have been that every loud laugh spoke the 
vacant mind, ' which ' merely superadding a statement about 
something already specified. 

'Vacant/ Adj. of Quality, Space. 

22. 'Every,' more emphatic than ' all : ' 'best/ superlative 
of 'good:' 'moderate/ Adj. of Quantity, Mass or Bulk j 
' good,' Adj. of Quality, used as a Noun. 

23. ' That try this mighty march/ Adjective clause, restric- 
tive. 

' Mighty/ must here be viewed as co-ordinate : ' this ' 
sufficiently indicates the march intended, and ' mighty ' is a 
superadded epithet, or simply an ' epithet,' strictly so called. 

24 ' Good ' is here little more than an expletive for filling 
up the sound : ' fair' and ' foul/ Adjectives of Quality, Plea- 
sure and Pain. 

8 Of fair and foul weather/ prepositional Adjective phrase, 
co-ordinate, equivalent to ' that contained both fair and foul 
weather. ' 

25. 'Northern/ Adj. of Quality, Space: 'sevenfold/ De- 
finite Numeral, Multiplying: 'steadfast/ Adj. of Quality, 
Motion. 

26. This is a complicated and difficult sentence to analyse 
and parse. ' Deep/ an Adjective in form (Quality, Space), is 
here properly an adverb of place. ' Shady/ Adj. of Quality, 
Colour. ' Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn/ a 
Participial Adjective phrase, restricting vale, indicating the 
kind of vale. 'Healthy/ Adj. of Quality. 'Far from the 



54 THE ADJECTIVE. 

fiery noon and eve's one star,' Prepositional Adjective phrase 
(sunken or situated being omitted) : would have been restric- 
tive or specifying had it come first, but coming when the 
nature of the vale has already been specified by the preceding 
clause, must be viewed as co-ordinate. s Fiery,' Adjective of 
Quality, co-ordinate. c Gray-haired,' Adj. of Quality, co- 
ordinate : would have been restrictive had there been several 
Saturns, and gray hairs distinctive of one of them. ' Quiet as 
a stone,' may be viewed either as an Adjective completion of 
the verb c sat,' or as an Adverbial qualification, the Adjective 
* quiet ' being used as an Adverb. ' Quiet,' Adj. of Quality, 
Sound. 

Here we have to do properly only with Adjectives : but it 
may be mentioned by anticipation that the three first lines 
are an Adverbial phrase of Place, indicating where Saturn sat. 

27, ' Gold bound,' Participial Adjective phrase ; co-ordinate 
— being unnecessary for the specifying of the brow, already 
denoted by the address ; equivalent to the clause ' that art 
bound with gold.' 

28. ' Additional,' Adj. of Quantity, Mass or Bulk. It is 
here restrictive : 'additional reputation ' cannot be applied so 
widely as £ reputation.' 

'Memorable,' Adj. of Quality, restrictive or co-ordinate 
according to the meaning intended. If the meaning is that 
Jerusalem sustained also sieges that are not memorable, and 
that it is the number and importance of the memorable ones 
that have made her famous, then memorable is restrictive, 
narrowing down the whole number of her sieges to those that 
are memorable. If, however, c the number and importance of 
her sieges ' alone would convey the intended meaning, then 
memorable is a co-ordinate epithet. 



EXERCISE ON ADJECTIVES GENERALLY. 55 

29. c Stony,' Adj. of Quality, restrictive. ' Inhuman,' Adj. 
of Quality, Good and Evil; co-ordinate — ' inhuman wretch ' 
being as widely applicable as c wretch.' 

'Incapable of pity,' Participial Adjective phrase, co-ordinate, 
equivalent to ' who' (not that) c is incapable of pity.' 

' Yoid and empty ' &c, another phrase of the same kind. 

30. e Attacks in flank and rear,' Prepositional Adjective 
phrase, restrictive, equivalent to c attacks that might be made 
in flank and rear.' 

( The Allies,' an instance of the particularising force of 'the,' 
the Allies that are concerned in our present history. 

' Besieging,' Participial Adjective phrase, restrictive : ' the 
forces ' alone would not be sufficient to denote the body 
intended. 

' AH,' though among the words of the predicate, really 
qualifies the subject. 

1 Upon the Chersonese,' a Prepositional Adjective phrase, 
used to complete the verb • were.' 

' Which was, &c.' is a clear instance of a co-ordinate Adjec- 
tive clause, introduced by the proper relative ' which.' 

31. c Light,' ' busy,' e peaceful,' Adjs. of Quality. 

The two last lines form a co-ordinate participial phrase. 
'Heaven's,' possessive case used as Adjective, equivalent to 
* the best treasures bestowed by Heaven.' 

32. c The unphilosophical artists of the circus.' ' Unphilo- 
sophical ' (Quality) is co-ordinate, ' of the circus ' (Preposi- 
tional Adjective phrase) being sufficient to let us know the 
class of artists intended. 

1 Standing or dancing upon his horse's back,' is not an 
adjectival but an Adverbial Participial phrase. 



56 THE ADJECTIVE. 

* Which lie is afterwards to receive on the sharpened point 
of a sword/ co-ordinate Adjective clause. 

c Sharpened,' and £ of a sword,' are both restrictive. 
' Sharpened,' a participle, equivalent to ' that has been 
sharpened.' 

The last clause — € connected with the most refined conclu- 
sions of science,' is restrictive. Only a portion of e physical 
truths,' can be so designated* 



THE VERB. 

Answers to Questions (p. 80). 

Q. 1. 'Shines/ c break,' and 'hear* are called Verbs, 
because they affirm or predicate. 

Q. 3. The test of a Verb is that it predicates. If c water/ 
' thunder,' ' house/ ' chair/ are ever used as the leading 
words in predication, then in such cases they must be parsed 
as "Verbs. ' Water ' is a Yerb in the following sentence : — 
The girl waters the flowers. c Thunder ' in the following : — 
When Nature thunders in our opening ears. ' House ' in the 
following : — They were comfortably housed and fed. ' Chair ' 
in the following : — The successful candidate was chaired by 
his supporters. 

Q. 5. Their arrival created a stir. The man lifted the boy 
on his shoulders. The wind drives the chaff before it. My 
friend touched my elbow. Their previous successes encouraged 
them. 

Q. 6. Sentences with Transitive Yerbs give the fullest 
meaning, because they give not only the subject and the 
action, but also the object of the action. 

Q. 7. For this purpose we may use any of the sentences given 
in answer to Q. 5. A stir was created by their arrival. The 
boy was lifted by the man. The chaff is driven by the wind. 



58 THE VERB. 

My elbow was touched by my friend. They were encouraged 
by their previous successes. 

Q. 8. The leaf trembles; the wind raves; the old man 
talks ; the child lisps ; the mnsic swells ; the river flows ; 
the drums beat ; the lieart throbs. 

Q. 9. Besides those in the GrammaT, the following are 
other cases that may be used for illustration : — sings a song — 
sings; paints a picture — paints; drives a horse — drives; 
bears a sound— hears. 

Exercise 11— (p. 79). 
The Verl. 

1-4. c Failed/ ' broke/ ' developes/ ' love/ are all Intransi- 
tive. ' Failed/ and ' broke/ express past time : c developes/ 
and e live/ express present time. The pupil may be asked 
to give instances where c break ' and c develope ' are used as 
Transitive Yerbs : such as — The child broke the glass; Study 
developes the mind. When these Verbs are used as Intransi- 
tive, the subject is supposed to undergo the action of itself, 
the agent not being obvious. 

c See ' is here transitive. 

'Do ' (See Gram. p. 143) is what is called an Auxiliary Verb, 
rather helping to express the time of an action, than expressing 
any action itself. 

5. ' Left ' transitive ;' returned/ intransitive. The difficulty 
here is in the parsing of 6 poor ' and ' rich/ They must be 
viewed as Adjectives in co-ordination with the subject ' he,' 
and completing or adding to the meaning of the predicate 
Verbs 'left' and 'returned/ 

* Left ' is sometimes intransitive, as — he left yesterday. 



EXEECISE ON THE VERB. £9 

* Eeturned ' is sometimes transitive, as — Have you returned 
his umbrella ? 

6. ' Clean,' completes the meaning of ' sweep.' It may be 
parsed as an adjective used for an adverb, expressing the 
manner of the sweeping : but it is more correctly regarded as an 
adjective completion of the Verb, in co-ordination with the 
understood noun for the surface swept. 

7. l Whispered,' ' bleat/ intransitive. Here, as in No. 4, the 
verb ' do ' is used as a pure auxiliary to express time. 

8. ' Conquer,' intransitive, the object being omitted. This 
is an opportunity for repeating how it is that Transitive Verbs 
pass into Intransitive. 

9. ' Is,' Verb of Incomplete Predication, completed by the 
phrase ' the greatest of our senses.' 

' See ' being used transitively, while 'hear' is used intran- 
sitively, there is thus another opportunity for enforcing the 
change from Transitive to Intransitive. 

'Loud,' and 'close,' are completions of 'are,' restricting 
' sounds ' understood in the predicate. 

10. 'Eat,' 'drink, 1 intransitives formed by the omission of 
their objects. ' Die ' is used only in an intransitive sense. 

11. ' Endeavours,' a Transitive Verb, having for its object 
not a simple noun, but the whole infinitive phrase — 'to sub- 
stitute education for coercion. 

' Deserves,' is usually a Transitive Verb. Here it seems to 
have no object, ' well' being an adverb, and as such expressing 
manner. But though ' well ' is an adverb in form, it is here 
really used as a noun, and as such is the object of ' deserves.' 

12. 'Happy,' a predicate adjective, completion of 'were' 
understood, restricting ' times ' understood. 



60 THE VERB. 

* Styled,' Verb of Incomplete Predication, completed by the 
noun ' fathers * with its adjunct ' of families.' 

13, 'As high as the roof of a cathedral (is),' an adjective 
(high) qualified by an adverbial clause, is here the completion 
of ' are.' 

In No. 6, ' sweep ' is intransitive by the omission of its 
object : here 'sweeps ' is purely intransitive, never being used 
transitively in this sense. 

c Roaring ' cannot here be said to express the manner of the 
' sweep,' for in that case it would have been parsed as a parti- 
ciple used for an adverb. It rather adds an independent 
circumstance to the predicate, and must be viewed as an 
adjective completion. 

' Beats,' intransitive. It is usually a Transitive Verb, but 
here the object is omitted, the action being of much more 
importance than the object. 'Against the pillars' is here 
an adverbial phrase, expressing the place where the beating 
action occurs. 

* Paved with ruddy marble,' completion of the Incomplete 
Verb ' seems,' a participial adjective phrase. 

' Can ' is sometimes parsed as an Auxiliary Verb, serving 
merely to express circumstance, the circumstance of potenti- 
ality, the action being viewed as a possible action. It is, 
however, more correct to view it as a Verb of Incomplete 
Predication, having the infinitive ' (to) come in,' as its com- 
pletion. 

'Placid,' adjective completion of ' is.' 

14. ' Wax,' and ' prove,' are here incomplete predicates, of 
which the adjectives ' poor ' and ' unkind' are the completions. 

15. ' Lighted,' intransitive, contracted from alighted. 






EXERCISE ON THE VERB. 61 

e Seemed to touch,' a Yerb of incomplete predication, com- 
pleted by the infinitive of a Transitive Yerb. 

' Decorating ' and c cheering,' participles of Transitive Yerbs. 
The whole clause that they introduce is a participial adjective 
phrase to ' her.' 

' Began to move,' Yerb of incomplete predication, com- 
pleted by the infinitive of an Intransitive Yerb. 

c Which she hardly seemed to touch,' is a good instance of 
a co-ordinate adjective clause. 

16. The completion of c is,' in this case, is the prepositional 
phrase c for thee.' 

c Ascends,' e sings,' intransitive. 

' Tunes/ ( elevates,' e pours,' c sw ells,' are all transitive. 



THE ADVERB. 
Answers to Questions (p. 90). 

Q. 1. The Adjective and the Adverb agree in being adjuncts, 
and not principal words in the sentence. They differ in the 
parts of speech that they are adjuncts to : the Adjective is an 
adjunct of the Noun, the Adverb of the Verb, the Adjective, 
or another Adverb. The answer may be briefly tabulated as 
follows : — 

The Advekb — 
Agrees with the Adjective — 

In being an Adjunct, not a principal word. 
Differs from the Adjective — 

In the Parts of Speech whose meaning it modifies. 

Q. 2. The Adverb expresses modes of actions : — walking 
lazily, rapidly 3 steadily; looking eagerly, vacantly, stead- 
fastVy ; working regularly, fitfully, industriously ; sailing 
swiftly, smoothly, slowly. 

Q. 3. The great nicety in regard to ' where,' c whence,' and 
e whither,' is their use as cases of pronouns. Generally, and 
as adverbs proper, they signify 'in which place,' 'from which 
place,' and 'to which place :' but when they refer back to a 
Noun, as in the following expressions — c the district where we 
live,' c the country whence he came,' c the land whither thou 
goest,' they are equivalent to l in which,' c from which,' and 
' to which,' a case of the relative, or a preposition with the 
relative. 



QUESTIONS ON THE ADVERB. 63 

Q. 11. Tins is the only other question that cannot be 
answered by a repetition or a simple modification of the text. 

Most of the Adjectives of Quality enumerated at p. 6i 
(Gram.) may be transformed into Adverbs by adding ' ly. J 
Here, therefore we need notice only the exceptions. 

Time. — The Adverb corresponding to ' following ' is formed 
from a synonymous word — subsequent ; * subsequently.' 

The Adverb corresponding to * future ' is ' hereafter.' 

The Adverb corresponding to 'contemporary' is taken from 
another form of the Adjective — contemporaneous ; ' contem- 
poraneously.' 

'Approaching.' The corresponding Adverb is 'approxi- 
mately,' from the Latin form of the Adjective. 

' Bygone ' — ' in former days.' 

' Ancient. ' ' Anciently ' is used, but ' in old times ' is 
most common. 

1 Modern,' ' now-a-days.' 

' Young ' — 'youthfully,' from another form of the Adjective. 

' Early ' is itself used as an Adverb. 

Space. — ' Expanded,' — ■ expansively,' from another form of 
the Adjective. 

' Long,' is used as an Adverb without change of form. 

' Straight.' In the meaning of 'not crooked,' the Adverb 
is ' straightly/ ' Straight ' is used as an Adverb in the sense 
of ' immediately,' ' directly.' 

The Adverbs most nearly corresponding to 'level' and 
' plane ' are ' evenly,' and ' flatly.* 

' Hanging,' ' pendently .' 

'Inclined,' 'obliquely.' 

' Crossed,' ' across.' 

« Outer,' c inner ' — ' out,' 'in.' ' Outerly ' is sometimes used. 

c Covered ' and ' bare ' have no immediately corresponding 



64 THE ADVERB. 

Adverbs. c Covertly' means c secretly / c barely/ witb < diffi- 
culty.' 

< Foremost ' and c bindermost/ like c first ' and ' last ' are 
Adverbs as well as Adjectives. 

Form. — ' Sloped/ ' bent/ c columnar/ e concave/ bave no 
immediately corresponding Adverbs. We bave, bowever, * con- 
cavously. 5 

Motion. — c Movingly' means patbetically. Tbere are no 
Adverbs immediately corresponding to ' sailing/ ' advanc- 
ing/ e receding/ c admitting/ c excluding/ ' rising/ * falling/ 
' turning/ ' vibrating.' 

Solidity. — Tbe Adjectives corresponding to 'polisbed' are 
' smootbly/ ' politely ; ' to ' frozen/ ' frostily/ ' cbilly.' 

Fluidity. — 'Fluid/ f fluently:' 'molten/ 'meltingly.' 

c Watery/ c wet/ ' moist/ c bubbling/ e purling/ bave no 
corresponding Adverbs. 

Colour. — e Coloured/ and tbe various adjective names of 
tbe colours bave no corresponding Adverbs. 

Good and Evil. — All tbese bave corresponding Adverbs. 
Tbe reason is tbat, tbey all bave a reference to action : unless 
tbe meaning of an Adjective can be turned so as to express 
tbe manner of an action, tbe Adjective cannot be converted 
into an Adverb. 

Tbe teacber sbould make mucb of tbe foregoing exercise. 
It is simple, and will make tbe pupils tbink and ransack tbeir 
dictionaries. 

Exercise 12 (p. 88.) 
The Adverb, 
1. 'By Columbus/ adverbial pbrase of Agency (wbicb may 
be considered a mode of Cause and Effect), qualifying ' was 
discovered.' 



EXERCISE ON THE ADVERB. 65 

' In the year 1492/ adverbial phrase of time. 

2. 'By studying economy,' adverbial phrase of Means 
(Cause and Effect), qualifying ' live like a lord.' 

c Like a lord,' is an Adjective completion of the incomplete 
verb f live.' 

3. ' Merrily,' adverb of Manner, Pleasure and Pain. 

c As a lark' (sings) c on a spring morning,' an adverbial 
clause of Degree or Comparison, qualifying ' merrily.' 

t On a spring morning,' phrase of Time, qualifying ' sings.' 

4. c To breakfast,' adv. phrase of Purpose (Cause), qualify- 
ing ' came down.' 

1 Every morning,' adv. phrase of time, noun and adjective 
with preposition ' on ' omitted, qualifying c came down.' 

.' In that summer visit of the year 1638,' adv. phrase of time. 

'Of the year 1638,' is an adjective phrase, restricting 
' summer visit.' 

5. ' Only,' adv. of Degree. 

c Willingly,' adv. of Manner, Pleasure and Pain. 

' With their whole strength,' adv. phrase of degree. 

' At the general burden,' adv. phrase of Place, metaphorical. 

6. ' Cheerfully,' adv. of Manner, Pleasure and Pain. 
€ With despatch,' adv. phrase of Time. 

7. ' Half-a-league,' noun used as adverb, adverbial phrase of 
Measure with preposition 'for,' or 'through' omitted. 

' Onward,' adverb of Place, Motion to. 

8. ' To right of them,' ' to left of them,' adverbial phrases of 
Place, Relative Position (Rest in) . This is the proper parsing, 
if the phrases are taken as qualifying the verbs understood 

' volleyed and thundered :' they may also be regarded as pre- 
positional adjective phrases co-ordinate with ' cannon.' 



66 THE ADVEBJ3. 

9. c Somewhere,' adv. of Place, Rest in : c somehow/ adv. 
of Manner: * by some beings,' adv. phrase of Agency (Canse 
and Effect). All these qualify the action of the sentence, 
which is not expressed. The completion of the sentence is — 
c a battle was travelling through all its stages ; ' and these 
adverbs qualify 'was travelling.' 

The corresponding adverbs f where ' (Place), c how ' (Manner) 
and 'by whom' (Agency), also qualify ' was travelling,' but 
in a somewhat different connection. The full expression of 
the subordinate clauses is — ' I know not where it was travel' 
ling through all its stages,' ' I knew not how &c./ ' I knew 
not by whom &c./ and the adverbs qualify the understood 
Verb. 

10. ' Down/ adv. of Place, Motion to, qual. ' go.' ' Above,' 
c below,' advs. of Place, Relative Position (Rest in), qualifying 
' resting,' or ' placed ' understood. 

11. ' In struggles ' is here probably not to be regarded as 
an adverbial phrase expressing the manner of the awaking, 
but as an adjective phrase, complement of the incomplete 
verb ' awoke,' expressing the state of the person when awaking. 

' Aloud,' adv. of Manner, Sound. 

' No more,' adverbial phrase of Time, Duration in Future 
Time, equivalent to c never in time to come,' and contracted 
from the full phrase c during no more time.' 

12. 'On the morrow/ adv. phrase of Time, Future, qual. 
c leave.' 

4 A s my hopes have flown before/ adv. clause of Comparison, 
qual. whole of preceding expression. 

13. J Presently/ adv. of Time, Future, qual. c grew stronger ' 
(incomplete verb with comparative adjective complement). 



EXERCISE ON THE ADVERB. 67 

' No longer/ adv. phrase of Time, Duration, full expression 
— ' for no longer time,' qual. e hesitating.' 
* Truly,' adv. of Certainty. 

14. c Shoreward,' adv. of Place, Motion to. 

c Soon,' adv. of Time, Duration. The two adverbs qualify 
'roll.' 

15. * Slowly,' adv. of Time, Duration. 

1 Sadly,' adv. of Manner, Pleasure and Tain. 'Down,' adv. 
of Place, Motion to. • From the field of his fame fresh and 
gory,' is a co-ordinate adjective phrase to ' him.' If we 
analyse the phrase by itself, we must suppose such a verb as 
' borne,' or f taken,' which is completed by the adjectives 
* fresh and gory,' and adverbially qualified by the phrase 
1 from the field of his fame ' — adverbial phrase of place, 
Motion from. 

16. c Many a time. adv. phrase of Time, Repetition : ■ oft,' 
adv. of Time, Repetition : l in the Bialto,' adv, phrase of 
Place, Rest in. All qualify the verb of the sentence, stating 
the circumstances of the action. 

17. f As often happens,' Adv. phrase of Time, expressing 
Degree of Repetition. It may be said to be an Adv. of Degree 
or an Adv, of Time : it expresses degree of time. It qualifies 
the whole assertion. 

8 Half-way,' adv. of Place, Rest in. 

18. c In the first place,' adv. phrase of Place, metaphorical : 
it qualifies the whole predicate. 

' Almost,' adv. of Degree, qual. ' exclusively.' 
'Exclusively,' adv. of Manner, expressing originally the 

! idea of Motion. 



DO THE ADVERB. 

19. ' Necessarily,' adv. of Certainty : ' from the very modq 
and nature of his existence/ adv. phrase of Cause : ' to all 
intents,' adv. of Degree. All these qualify the predicate ' is 
a speculative being.' 

20. c There.' This is the peculiar idiom of ' there ' men- 
tioned in Grammar, p. 82. In such cases it may be called an 
' Expletive,' or ' filling-out ' word, serving merely as a tem- 
porary stop -gap till the subject of the verb is brought up. 

' Half,' adv. of Measure. 

* So,' adv. of Comparison. 

' In life,' Adverbial phrase of Place, qual. ' existing,' or some 
such word, understood — 'nothing existing (or that exists) in 
life is half so sweet as, &c. ' If we omit all reference to the 
understood verb, * in life ' must be taken as an adjective phrase 
restricting ' thing.' 

'As Love's young dream' (is), adverbial clause of Com- 
parison. 

21. ' Some day,' adv. phrase of Indefinite Time, with pre- 
position c on' omitted. ' Day' may be parsed as a Noun used 
for an Adverb. 

' Not yet,' adv. of Future Time. 

22. 'Still,' adjective completion of 'lay.' 'Until I was 
within a hundred yards of him,' adv. clause of Time, Future 
(to the predicate 'lay still'). 

Within a hundred yards of him,' here appears as an adjec- 
tive completion (prepositional phrase) of the verb ' was : ' but 
in strict sense it is an adverbial phrase qualifying some such 
verb as * situated,' ' stationed,' or ' standing,' understood. 

' Slowly,' adv. of Manner, Motion. 

' On his fin-like legs,' adv. phrase of Manner, Motion. 

' Towards the river/ adv. phrase of Place, Motion to. 



EXERCISE ON THE ADVERB. 69 

'Askance,' adverb of Manner, Motion. 

'At me,' adv. phrase of Place, metaphorical : Direction. 

23. ' Steadfastly,' adv. of Manner, Motion. 

' On the face that was dead,' adv. phrase of Place, Direction. 
1 Bitterly,' adv. of Manner, Pleasure and Pain. 

24. ' At the close of the day,' adverbial phrase of Time : 
' when the hamlet is still,' adv. clause of Time. 

25. Adverbial phrases of Manner. 

26. ' After dinner,' adv. phrase of Time. * In his chair,' 
adv. phrase of Place. 

1 Idle,' is an adjective completion of ' sat : ' the adv. phrases 
I qualify the predicate ' sat idle.' 

'Ruddy, fat, and fair,' must be treated as co-ordinate adjec- 
tives, superadding information, and doing nothing to restrict. 

27. c Since last we met,' adv. clause of Time, Past. ' Last,' 
is here used as an Adverb of Degree or Measure of Time. 
The full expression is ' since the last time when we met. ' 

The case illustrates how Prepositions pass into Conjunc- 
tions ; see Grammar, p. 104. 

' Again,' adv. of Time, Repetition. 

' 'Tis years,' is a curious idiomatic expression. ' Years ' is 
a noun completion of ' is,' and though plural in form, is treated 
as a singular expression for a period of time. 
. 28. ' Darkly,' adv. of Manner, Colour : ' deeply,' adv. of 
Degree : ' beautifully ' adv. of Manner, Pleasure and Pain. 
All these qualify the adjective ' blue,' and in such a position 
are all adverbs of Degree, expressing a degree of the colour 
'blue. 1 

' Somewhere,' adv. of Place, indefinite. 



70 THE ADVEUB. 

' About the sky,' adverb of Place, metaphorical, expressing 
the subject or topic. 

29. c A very long way,' adv. phrase of Degree in Place, 
preposition * for ' omitted. ' Yery * is an adv. of Degree : * a 
long way,' without the ' very,' would have been a phrase of 
degree. 

30. e Ten times,' adv. phrase of Degree m Time, preposi- 
tion c for ' omitted. 

31. c Of her softest mould,' adv. phrase of Material (Cause 
and Effect), expressing also Degree. 

( With tender passions,' adv. phrase of Instrument (Cause 
and Effect). 

c Even,' adv. of Degree. 

c Below my weak sex,' adv. phrase of Place, Relative Posi- 
tion (Rest in) . 

32. c Where,' interrogative adverb of Place, Rest in. 
' Home,' noun used as Adverb, adverbial phrase with prepo- 
sition f to ' omitted. 

33. c Beneath this cold slab,' c in the chapel,' e in the Abbey,' 
adv. phrases of Place, Rest in. 

« Now,' adv. of Time, Present. 

34. £ Soundly,' adv. of Manner : c very,' adv. of Degree. 

e Much,' and c better,' usually adjectives, are here both 
adverbs. e Composed ' is the adjective completion of c waked.' 

c Than I had ever been before,' adv. clause of Comparison. 

4 Ever,' adv. of Time, Indefinite. c Before,' adv. of Time, 
Past. 

'Now,' adv. of Time, Present. 'Sedately,' adv. of Manner. 

e Upon the utmost debate with myself,' adverbial phrase of 
Cause. 



EXERCISE ON THE ADVERB. 71 

c So,' adv. of Comparison : ' exceeding/ adjective impro- 
perly used as adverb, Degree. 

' No farther from the mainland than as I had seen,' adv. 
phrase of Place. ' Than as I had seen,' adv. clause of Com- 
parison, ' than ' being the leading word of comparison, ' as ' 
not being concerned in the comparison, but serving simply as 
an adverb of Manner. 

1 Entirely,' Adv. of Degree. 

* So entirely as I might imagine,' Adv. clause of Compari- 
j son. 

35. ' First,' adv. of Place, Relative Position. 

' As he flew,' adv. clause of Time. * As ' has here no 
meaning of Comparison. 

' A moment,' noun used as adverb, or adverbial phrase of 
Time, with the preposition ' for ' omitted. 

' Upon his way,' adv. phrase of Place. 

'If his eyes were good,' adv. clause of Condition (Cause 
i and Effect), qualifying the whole of the principal clause. 

' By night,' adv. phrase of Time. 

' Every day,' adv. phrase of Time, Repetition, with prepo- 
sition ' on ' omitted. 

36. 'Deep,' adjective used by poetical license for adverb 
' deeply,' adv. of Degree. 

' O'er our heads, ' adv. phrase of Place, Relative Position. 
'Imminent,' is not an adjective used for an adverb, but an 
adjective complement of the verb 'hung.' 
' With imperious gloom,' adv. phrase of Manner, Colour. 

37. 'With such a companion/ adv. phrase of Manner, 
qual. 'to tend.' ' As— as a feather ' (is light), adv. clause of 
Comparison, qualifying ' was light.' 



72 THE ADVERB. 

'So — as never was known,' adv. clause of Comparison, 
qualifying c am grown easy.' 

1 Strangely,' adv. of Manner. 

c Up ' and ' down,' in c rise up ' and * lie down,' are strictly 
Adverbs, expressing the direction of the action ; but they are 
so often used in the same connection that they must almost 
be regarded as parts of the Verb, or as constituting Compound 
Verbs. 



THE PREPOSITION. 

Answers to Questions — (p. 101). 

Q. 1. The Preposition is called a word of relation because 
it cannot stand by itself as Subject, Predicate, or Adjunct of 
Subject or of Predicate, but is used simply to relate or con- 
nect other words, so as to form Adjuncts. The words related 
by the Preposition are chiefly Verbs and Nouns. 

Such words as ' street/ ' rattles/ ' stony/ ' loudly/ convey 
a certain meaning in themselves, may stand by themselves 
among the four principal Parts of a Sentence : but such words 
as c to/ ' with/ ' beneath/ cannot stand by themselves among 
the four leading Parts, but can appear only as parts of those 
parts, as particZes, or little parts. These particles are em- 
ployed in the making up of adjuncts, serving, chiefly, as has 
been seen, to introduce adverbial phrases, or phrases that, 
once adverbial, have by contraction become apparently adjec- 
tival. 

As adverbial phrases always qualify verbs, expressed or 
understood, and consist of a preposition and a noun (with or 
without adjuncts), the function of the Preposition may be 
said to be relating, or attaching, or hooking, or linking on, 
nouns to verbs. 

Q. 2. Pronouns and Conjunctions are also words of relation. 
The Pronoun relates in a different way. It i3 not, like 
7 



74 THE PREPOSITION. 

the Preposition, incapable of standing by itself as one of 
the four great Parts of a Sentence; it may stand in every 
place open to the Noun : but it has no meaning by itself; it 
relates or refers to some other part of speech. The Conjunc- 
tion, as will be seen, relates in a way similar to the Prepo- 
sition. 

Q. 4. This question cannot be fully understood without an- 
ticipating the idea that a clause may stand in place of a Noun. 
In such sentences as — c He said that he would do it;* * I have 
done what I promised ' — e that he would do it/ and c what I 
promised,' being the objects of the transitive verbs ' said' and 
f done/ are regarded as standing in place of Nouns, and spoken 
of as Noun Clauses ; just as clauses standing in place of Adjec- 
tives and Adverbs are called Adjective Clauses and Adverbial 
Clauses. In such clauses as — £ Since I left homey ' before I 
came here,' c after he met me? — c I left home/ e I came here/ 
and ' he met me,' may be regarded as Noun Clauses coming 
after ' since,' ( before/ and e after/ in which view ' since/ 
' before/ and f after/ are Prepositions. But this nice analysis 
is not attended to ; and c since,' c before/ and * after/ are in 
such cases called Conjunctions. The analysis is, however, 
useful as showing one probable origin of Conjunctions. 

Q. 8. Other phrases besides those mentioned at this point 
in the text are such as — in case of, in the event of, from a 
jegard to, in respect of, by means of, through the instrumen- 
tality of, in accordance with. 

Q. 12. c The heat of the fire/ Attributive meaning of ' of :' 
the heat is not a part or division of the fire, but an attribute 
or quality of the fire. 

• The wing of the butterfly/ Partitive meaning : the wing 



QUESTIONS ON THE PREPOSITION. 75 

is a part of the animal. In c the beauty of the butterfly,' i of 
is Attributive. 

c The love of the child,' Reference meaning. The reference 
may be either from the child or to the child : the meaning may 
be either e the love felt by (proceeding from) the child to some 
person,' or the love directed towards the child by some person. 

Q. 18. Even the prepositions of Rest in a Place, have a 
tacit reference to direction of previous movement. ' In' implies 
movement from some * station regarded as e oat : ' c on ' implies 
movement from a station regarded as c off : ' and similarly 
c at,' c near,' and 'by,' imply movements from opposed situa- 
tions. 

Q. 20. c By,' ( through,' and c with,' are all primarily Pre- 
positions of Place. 

In giving the different meanings of a Preposition or the 
sub-divisions of a class, frequent use should be made of the 
black board. 

In exercising on the Prepositions, the teacher will find 
abundance of examples in the Exercises on the Adjective and 
the Adverb, Exercises 8, 9, 10, 12. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 
Answers to Questions — (p. 112). 

Q. 1. Conjunctions and Prepositions agree in being words 
of relation : differ in the mode of their relation, Prepositions 
relating one part of speech to another in the same senteMce, 
Conjunctions relating one sentence to another. 

Q. 3. When we wish to know, in a given case, whether a 
word is an Adverb or a Conjunction, we must look to the 
purpose that it serves. If it modifies the meaning of a Yerb, 
then it is an Adverb : if it joins two sentences together, then 
it is a Conjunction. Take, for example, the sentence — f He 
should have acted otherwise. 1 Here ' otherwise ' qualifies the 
verb ' acted/ and is parsed as an Adverb. Take, again, the 
sentence — ' He did not let me know that he was here ; other- 
wise I should have gone and seen him.' Here c otherwise ' 
connects two sentences, and is a Conjunction. 

Q. 4. The change of a word from Preposition to Conjunc- 
tion is a somewhat difficult idea (see before, p. 74) . To bring 
it fully out, the teacher should insist chiefly that the sentence 
introduced by the Conjunction may be regarded as a substitute 
for a Noun, and the Conjunction as a preposition relating that 
Noun Sentence or Clause to a verb. 

Q. 7- ' If he had not missed his opportunity, he might now 
have been a prosperous man/ 



QUESTIONS ON THE CONJUNCTION. 77 

1 They succeeded in business, because their character 
inspired confidence. 3 

' John has been confined to bed since he met with that 
accident. ' 

See also Exercise 14. 

Q. 8. All the sentences in Exercise 13, are examples of Co- 
ordinate Sentences. 

Q. 9. A small amount of dependence exists between 
sentences connected by 'and.' 'I went and saiv him 
— the seeing of him is to some extent dependent upon the 
going, and the going upon the seeing. There always 
is a certain connection between two facts united by a Con- 
junction in statement. But in the sentence ' I went in 
order that I might see him ,' the degree of dependence is 
much greater. In the first case, each clause states an actual 
fact, and the two are co-ordinate : in the second case, the one 
clause states an actual fact, and the other states a possibility 
depending upon that fact without saying whether it actually 
took place. In the one case you have two co-ordinate state- 
ments of fact ; in the other a statement of fact and a sub- 
ordinate possibility. These are the two extremes. 

Examples of ' either — or ' lie between the two. ( Either 
you (must go) or I must go.' Here we have two co-ordinate 
dependencies, my going being dependent upon your going, 
and your going upon my going. The one fact is not so 
absolutely subordinated to the other as in the sentence — c I 
went in order that I might see him ; ' nor so much indepen- 
dent of the other as in the sentence—' I went and saw him.' 

Q. 14. c Also,' f likewise,' and e as well as,' have a certain 
meaning of comparison, as well as of cumulation or addition. 



78 THE CONJUNCTION. 

Exercise 13— (p. 108). 
Co-ordinating Conjunctions. 
There is no difficulty in this exercise, nor in the following : 
still, it may be convenient for the teacher to have a list beside 
him. 

1. c And,' co-ordinating, cumulative. 

2. e Else,' co-ordinating, adversative, exclusive. 

3. f Still,' co-ordinating, adversative, arrestive. 

4. ( Only,' co-ordinating, adversative, arrestive. 

5. c However,' co-ordinating, adversative, arrestive. 

6. ' But,' co-ordinating, adversative, arrestive. 

c Or,' co-ordinating, adversative, alternative. The full ex- 
pression would be : — ' it takes the colour of the glass that giveth 
the reflection, or it takes the colour of the body that giveth the 
reflection.' 

7. e Either — or/ co-ordinating, adversative, alternative. Full 
expression — c A man's nature runs either to herbs or it runs 
to weeds.' 

8. ' Yet,' co-ordinating, adversative, arrestive. 

In the expression — c were those virtues more mature,' there 
is an omission of the conjunction c if,' Subordinating, Condition. 

9. ' And,' co-ordinating, cumulative : * also,' co-ordinating, 
cumulative. 

10. ' But,' co-ordinating, adversative, arrestive. 

1 For all that,' phrase, co-ordinating, adversative, arrestive. 

11. ' Wherefore,' co-ordinating, illative. 



CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS. 79 

12. c Thus,' co-ordinating, illative : e not only — but,' co- 
ordinating, cnmnlative. 

13. 'Yet,' co-ordinating, adversative, arrestive. 

14. e So — that,' co-ordinating, illative. 

15. c Otherwise,' co-ordinating, adversative, exclusive. 

16. c Consequently/ co-ordinating, illative. 

17. c But,' co-ordinating, adversative, arrestive. 

18. e Nor,' co-ordinating, adversative, alternative. Full 
expression — e nor yet was he beside the rill, nor was he up the 
lawn, &c.' 

c Yet' is here not a Conjunction, but an Adverb of Time, 
qualifying the predicate c was beside the rill.' This is also a 
good sentence for Prepositions. 

19. ' But then/ co-ordiuating, adversative, arrestive. c Then' 
has no illative force here. 

20. f Not only— but/ c not only — but also/ co-ordinating 5 
i cumulative. 

21. ' Therefore/ co-ordinating, illative. The full expression 
of this sentence would be — ' There still remain for him cares, 
and there still remain for Jiim duties, and, therefore, there still 
remain for him hopes.' 

22. 'Whether — or/ co-ordinating, adversative, alternative. 

23. e As well as/ co-ordinating, cumulative. 

24. * Partly — partly/ co-ordinating, cumulative. 

c Because/ and c that/ are Subordinating Conjunctions of 
Reason. 

25. { Nevertheless/ co-ordinating, adversative, arrestive. 



80 THE CONJUNCTION. 

26. ' Accordingly/ co-ordinating, illative. 

27. ' First— then/ co-ordinating, cumulative. 

28. ' So— that,' co-ordinating, illative. 

29. ' At the same time/ co-ordinating phrase, arrestive. 

Exercise 14— (p. 110). 

Conjunctions generally. 

1. 'As — as/ subordinating, end or purpose. 'Or/ < 
ordinating, adversative, alternative : full expression — ' as a 
robe is fit for a race or a mantle, &c/ 

2. 'If/ subordinating, condition, 

3. 'Notwithstanding/ subordinating, condition. 

4. ' Unless/ subordinating, condition. 

5. ' So as/ subordinating, end or purpose. 

6. ' As if/ subordinating, condition. 

7. ' Then/ co-ordinating, illative : ' since/ subordinating, 
cause. 

8. ' Lest/ subordinating, end or purpose. 

9. 'Supposing that/ subordinating, condition: 'then/ co- 
ordinating, illative — elliptical for 'what would happen then ?' 

10. ' If not/ subordinating, condition. ' He was ' is 
Omitted in the conditional clause. 

11. Farther example of ' if.' 

12. ' That/ subordinating, end or purpose. 

13. For/ subordinating, reason. 



EXERCISE ON CONJUNCTIONS GENERALLY. 81 

14. ' And,' co-ordinating, cumnlative : ' as/ subordinating, 
time. 

15. 'If,' subordinating, condition. 

16. ' Though,' subordinating, condition. 

17. 'Because,' subordinating, reason. 

18. e When,' ' while,' ' as,' subordinating, time. 

19. 'Except,' subordinating, condition. 

20. ' Nor,' co-ordinating, adversative, alternative : c albeit, 
: subordinating, condition — ' he was,' understood. 

21. 'When,' subordinating, time: 'but/ co-ordinating, 
I adversative, arrestive. 



INFLECTION. 



Inflection for Gender. 



Answers to Questions— (p. 116.) 

Q. 2. The employing of different words to distinguish sex 
is not, strictly speaking, a process of Inflection, which is a 
change made in the termination of a word. 

The black-board should be used to give emphasis to the 
three principal ways of distinguishing Gender. Some such 
skeleton as this may be sufficient : — 

Gender is distinguished — 
I. By different words : as — father, mother 
II. By prefixes : as — he- wolf, she -wolf. 
III. By suffixes : as — priest, priestess. 

Q. 6. Enemy — common : prophet — masculine : author — 
masculine : Time — masculine : Mercy — feminine : vixen — 
feminine: breath — neuter: snow— neuter : wolf — common: 
tiger — masculine ? salmon — common. 

Q. 7. These may be written on the black-board in column, 
thus : — 



Mas. 


Fern. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Earl 


Countess 


He-bear 


She-bear 


Duke 


Duchess 


Lion 


Lioness 


Marquis 


Marchioness 


Instructor 


Instructress 


Traitor 


Traitress 


Testator 


Testatrix 


Director 


Directrix 







QUESTIONS ON INFLECTION FOR NUMBER. 83 

Inflection for Number. 

Answers to Questions — (p. 121). 

These questions also present no difficulty. The teacher's 
chief care in enforcing the various rules and remarks about 
the formation of the plural should be first to vary the state- 
ment, next to detach passages relating to the same point, and 
tabulate them under heads. 

Sections 1-5 deal with the various forms of the plural inflec- 

: tion : sections 6-11 contain miscellaneous remarks. When 

( the question is put — ( What are the various modes of forming 
the plural ? ' the answer lies in sections 1-5. 

i The various modes of forming the plural may be tabulated 

j as follows : — 

Various Forms of Plural Inflection. 

I. Plurals in f s' — General rule.— The Plural is generally 
formed by adding s to the Singular. 

Various Modes of Plural in c s.' 1. After sharp Mutes. 
When the Noun ends in a sharp mute \jp 9 /, t 3 th 
(in thin), k~], the c s' has its sharp sound (sea). 

2. After flat mutes. When the Noun ends in a flat mute 

[b, v, d, th (in the), g\ in a liquid (m, n 9 I, r), or 
in a vowel, the c s ' has its flat sound z. 

3. After sibilants. When the Noun ends in a sibilant or 

hissing sound (s 9 z 9 sh 9 ch 9 x) 9 * es ' is added instead 

of < s.' 
Plurals of nouns ending in ' o,' and of nouns ending in 
' J} preceded by a consonant, spell with ( es ' 
instead of { s,'but pronounce simply with the z 
sound of { s,' according to Rule 2, for nouns ending 
in a vowel. 



84 INFLECTION. 

4. Exception after '/' or 'fe.' — Nouns of Anglo-Saxon 
origin ending in S V or 'fe* preceded bj a long vowel, 
or by ' 1/ change the ' f ' into ' v.' 

Here also the spelling is in ' es ; ' and, ' v ' being a flat 
mute, * s ' sounds z. • 

II. Obsolete Plurals. A small number of Nouns form 
their plurals by obsolete modes of inflection. 

1. By adding c en' to the singular. 

2. By adding ' ry ' to the singular. 

3. By changing the vowel of the singular. 

III. Plurals uniform with tlie Singular. Some Nouns have 
the same form in both numbers. 

IV. Foreign Plurals. Many words borrowed from other 
languages retain their original plurals. 

With such a skeleton as the above before him, the teacher 
will awaken his pupils to the meaning and mutual relation of 
the various rules for forming the plural, by asking such ques- 
tions as — " What are the various modes of the Plural in c s ' ? " 
"What is the sound of s after a flat mute?" "Does the 
general rule hold after sibilants ? " "Do all nouns ending in 
sharp mutes take sharp c s ' in the plural [pointing to c f ' in 
Rule 4] ? " " Enumerate the obsolete modes of forming the 
plural" — and such-like. 

Q. 2. The only classes of nouns that conform strictly to the 
general rule for forming the plural, are nouns ending in mutes, 
sharp or flat. The classes that do not conform strictly are 
nouns ending in sibilants, Anglo-Saxon nouns in £ f ' preceded 
by a long vowel or by ' 1,' and nouns borrowed directly from 
other languages. Besides these non-conforming c classes,' 
there are various non- conforming individuals, that prefer to 



QUESTIONS ON INFLECTION FOR NUMBER. 85 

form the plural by obsolete modes, or to retain the same form 
in both numbers. 

Q. 3. ' Cargoes ' and ( beauties ' are not an exception to the 
general rule in so far as pronunciation is concerned. They 
are pronounced exactly as if they formed the plural by adding 
1 s ' to the singular, the ' s ' having its sound of z after the 
vowel termination. 

Q. 5. Bin, bins (z)j chair, chairs (z) ; church, churches; 
street, streets ; child, children ; grotto, grottoes (z) ; staff, 
staffs or staves (z) ; stuff, stuffs ; handkerchief, handkerchiefs ; 
window, windows (z) j ally, allies (z) ; spray, sprays (z) ; 
aviary, aviaries (z) ; wreath, wreaths. 

Q. 8. Species, species j seraph, seraphim ; criterion, crite- 
ria ; formula, formulae ; focus, foci ; bandit, banditti ; virtuoso, 
virtuosi ; Sir, Messieurs ; Madam, Mesdames ; larva, larvae. 

These plurals are irregular in English, as being borrowed 
from foreign languages, and retaining their original forms. 

* Seraph,' * formula,' and ' bandit,' take also the regular 
English plural in £ o : ' seraphs, formulas (z), bandits. 

The pupils may be asked whether the c p' in these plurals 
sounds sharp s or z. 

Q. 12. A noun of Material has no plural, because it is a 
name for the whole body of one kind of material all put 
together, not a name for separate individual objects. When 
used for separate parts or pieces of any one material, it be- 
comes a general noun, and takes a plural (see Gram. p. 36). 

Similarly with Abstract nouns. An Abstract noun is not 
a name for separate individuals, but for the resemblance that 
they bear to one another, and so is naturally singular. When 
the Abstract noun is used for more than one resemblance or 

8 



86 INFLECTION. 

agreement, it becomes a General noun, and takes a plural. 
(See Gram. p. 37). 

The Questions on Inflection for Case, on the Inflection 
of Pronouns, and on the Inflection of Adjectives, need no 
special explanation. 

Exercise 15 — (p. 128). 

Inflection of Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs. 

In parsing for Inflection, the pupil should be trained to 
notice only words that are really inflected. Gender, Number, 
Case, or Degree, should not be remarked upon unless in words 
that are inflected to express such meanings. The singular 
number has no inflection, and need not be alluded to when 
the parsing is for inflection alone : and similarly with the 
nominative and the objective cases in nouns, and the positive 
degree in adjectives and in adverbs. The feminine gender, 
the plural number, the possessive case, and the comparative 
and superlative degrees, are the chief things to look out for. 

When a sentence is taken up for examination, the pupils 
may be asked first of all to point out what words in the sen- 
tence are inflected, not beginning to specify the inflections 
until all the inflected words have been singled out. 

1 . In this sentence the only inflected word that we have 
to remark upon is 8 hers/ the possessive case of the feminine 
of the third personal pronoun. In answer to the direction — 
Parse f hers ' for Inflection, the pupil may be expected to give 
some such answer as — * Hers,' demonstrative pronoun, in- 
flected for Gender, Number, and Case; feminine gender, 
singular number, possessive case. In calling the word a 
pronoun, we really go beyond parsing for Inflection, and 



EXERCISE ON INFLECTIONS. 87 

parse for Parts of Speech : but at this stage it may be well 
not to insist upon such a nicety. 

* Is ' is also an inflected word, but being a verb it does not 
come under our notice at this stage. It is inflected for 
Number, Person, Tense or Time, and Mood. 

2. The inflected words are c it' and c its.' — e It/ de- 
monstrative pronoun, inflected for Gender and Number ; neuter 
gendei', singular number. c Its,' third personal pronoun, 
inflected for Gender, Number, and Case ; neuter gender, 
singular number, possessive case. 

3. The inflected words are *he/ c others,' c him,' c his,' c who. ' 
— * He,' demonstrative pronoun, inflected for Gender, Num- 
ber, and Case ; masculine gender, singular number, nomi- 
native case. c Him/ the same, objective case. e His,' the 
same, possessive case. c Others/ indefinite pronoun, inflected 
for Number ; plural number. ( Who,' relative pronoun, in- 
flected for Case ; nominative case. 

4. { She/ c her/ demonstrative pronoun, inflected for 
Gender, Number, and Case : both feminine gender, singular 
number; c she ' — nominative case, 'her' — objective case. 

5. f Them/ e less/ f thee.' — S Them/ third personal pronoun, 
inflected for Number and Case ; plural number, objective 
case. ' Less/ adverb, ( c little '), inflected for Degree ; compara- 
tive degree. ' Thee/ second personal pronoun, inflected for 
Number and Case ; singular number, objective case. 

6. f Those/ c who/ c me.' — e Those/ demonstrative pronoun 
c that/ inflected for Number ; plural number. * Who/ rela- 
tive pronoun, inflected for Case ; nominative case. c Who ' 
is here plural, but has no inflection to express this : we must 
refer to the antecedent 'those/ or to the inflection of the 



88 INFLECTION. 

verb ' love,' before we know the number of c who,' ' Me/ 
first personal pronoun, inflected for Number and Case ; singu- 
lar number, objective case. 

7. 'He,' 'whose/ 'empires,' ' stakes," thrones.' — 'Whose,' 
relative pronoun, inflected for Case } possessive case. ' Em- 
pires,' ' stakes/ c thrones/ nouns inflected for Number ; plural 
number. 

8. 'Whom/ 'gods.'—' Gods/ noun, inflected for Number; 
plural number. 

9- c 1/ ' its/ ' fullest.' — ' 1/ first personal pronoun, inflected 
for Number and Case ; singular number, nominative case. 
' Fullest/ adjective, (' full/) inflected for Degree; superlative 
degree. 

10. 'These/ 'affairs/ 'moment's.' — ' These/ demonstrative 
pronominal adjective, ' this/ inflected for Number; plural 
number. [This is an opportunity for putting the question 
whether adjectives generally are inflected for Number.] 
' Affairs/ noun inflected for Number ; plural number. ' Mo- 
ment's/ noun inflected for Case ; possessive case. 

11. '1/ 'courts/ 'affairs/ 'debts/ 'prayers.' — The four 
nouns are inflected for the plural number. Two of them, 
' courts ' and ' debts/ ending in sharp mutes, form the plural 
in sharp s : the other two, ' affairs ' and ' prayers/ ending in 
a liquid ' r/ form the plural with the z sound of ' s.' 

12. ' Amends,' ' those/ ' prince's/ ' coffers.' — 'Amends' is 
one of those nouns that are used only in the plural : the ' s ' 
has its z sound. ' Prince's/ noun inflected for case ; posses- 
sive case. ' Coffers/ noun inflected for Number ; plural 
number .-the ' s ' has its z sound. 



EXERCISE ON INFLECTIONS. 89 

13. ' These,' * writings,' ' counterfeits/ c contents.' — 
c Writings.' ' Writing ' is an abstract noun, active verbal ; 
abstract nouns are not used in the plural until they have laid 
aside their character and become general nouns. { Writings ' 
must be parsed as the plural of a general noun ; the name not 
of an abstract process, but of an actual thing. c Counterfeits,' 
is another case of a noun originally abstract treated as a 
general noun, and used in the plural. ' Contents,' is used 
only in the plural. In ' writings,' the c s ' comes after a flat 
mute c g,' and sounds z : "in the other two, c s ' sounds sharp. 

14. c We,' e manners.' — ' We,' first personal pronoun, in- 
flected for Number and Case ; plural number, nominative 
case. c Manners,' is used in this sense only in the plural : 
the singular 'manner' has a different meaning. 

15. c His,' c compasses,' c God's,' e things.' — 'His,' de- 
monstrative pronoun, inflected for Gender, Number, and Case ; 
masculine gender, singular number, possessive case. e Com- 
passes,' plural inflection in ' es ' after a sibilant : c compass ' 
is one of those nouns that have the plural and the singular of 
different meanings. c God's,' noun inflected for Case; pos- 
sessive case. [Here the pupils may be asked what nouns the 
possessive inflection is chiefly confined to. ] c Things,' noun 
inflected for number ; plural number. 

16. e Animals,' c wiser,' c sons,' c men,' c particulars.' — 
1 Animals,' plural in z sound, after a liquid. ' Wiser,' adjec- 
tive c wise,' inflected for Degree ; comparative degree. 
c Sons,' plural in z sound after a liquid. c Men,' plural formed 
by the obsolete mode of changing the vowel of the singular. 
c Particulars,' plural in z sound after a liquid. 

' Their ' is not the possessive case of ' they,' but the pos- 



90 INFLECTION. 

sessive adjective. In the word ' compass,' we see the different 
meaning of ' compasses ' in the singular form. 

17. ' Softer/ ' petals,' c roses,' ' dews,' ' waters,' ' walls,' 
c gentlier,' 'eyelids,' ' eyes.' — * Softer ' is properly the com- 
parative degree of the adjective ' soft,' but here it is used, by 
poetical licence, as the comparative degree of the adverb 
' softly.' ' Petals,' plural in z sound, after a liquid. ' Roses,' 
plural in z sound. [In this or in some similar case, the 
teacher may remark that ' s ' has its z sound after a sibilant.] 
'Dews/ plural in z sound, after a vowel sound. 'Waters,' 
plural in z sound, after a liquid. ' Walls/ plural in z sound, 
after a liquid. . ' Gentlier/ adverb ' gently ' inflected for 
Degree ; comparative degree. ' Eyelids/ plural in z sound, 
after a flat mute. ' Eyes/ plural in z sound, after a vowel. 

18. 'He/ ' best/ ' more/ 'worst/ 'better.'— 'Best/ adjec- 
tive ' good ' irregularly inflected for Degree ; superlative 
degree. ' More/ adjective ' much ' irregularly inflected for 
Degree ; comparative degree. e Worst/ adjective ' bad ' irre- 
gularly inflected for Degree ; superlative degree. ' Better/ 
adjective ' good ' irregularly inflected for Degree ; comparative 
degree. 

When an adjective turns up in the Comparative or the 
Superlative degree, the pupils may be called upon to give the 
full Comparison. 

Inflection of Verbs. 

Answers to Questions — (p. 153). 

Q. 2. Difference of voice means difference of form in the 
verb according as the agent or the object of the action (the 
patient) is the subject of the verb. When the ageut is the 
subject of the verb, as — ' The porter opened the gates/ the 



VARIOUS FORMS IN ' ING.' 91 

verb is said to be in the Active voice : when tbe object of the 
action is the subject of the verb, as — ' The gates were opened 
by the porter/ the verb is said to be in the Passive voice. 

Intransitive verbs have no Passive voice, because they have 
no object. 

To signify the Passive voice, we make use of what is called 
an auxiliary to the inflection for the Passive voice, the verb c to 
be.' 

The teacher may here, if he thinks fit, add that certain 
intransitive verbs, such as f sleep,' c die,' e fall,' are sometimes 
called Neuter verbs, that is, verbs neither Active nor Passive. 
Such verbs, as contrasted with c walk,' ' run,' ' sing,' ' see,' 
are really more nearly allied to the Passive voice than to the 
Active : the subject of such verbs is not so much an agent as 
a passive object. Some grammarians, accordingly, make a 
distinction among Intransitive verbs corresponding to the 
distinction between Active and Passive ; and parse them as 
Active Intransitives and Neuter Intransitives. 

Q. 3. Difference of Mood means difference of form in the 
verb to express difference of mode or manner in the action. 

Q. 5-9. The agreements and differences of the various 
parts of speech in c ing ' should be tabulated and written on 
the black board — an important exercise. 

The Infinitive in c ing ' — 

Agrees with The Verbal Noun in ' ing ' in the following : — 

1. It may be the subject or the object of a verb. 

2. It may be qualified by an adjective, especially the de- 
finite article, or a possessive adjective. 



92 INFLECTION. 

Differs from the verbal noun in c ing ' in the following : — 

1. It takes an object, when transitive. 

2. It may be qualified by an adverb. 

3. It is never conjoined with the indefinite article. 

4. It cannot be inflected for number. 

The points of distinction between the Infinitive and the 
Participle of the same form may be stated thus : — 

The Infinitive in c ing ' — 
Agrees with the Participle in ' ing ' in the following : — 

1. It takes an object when transitive. 

2. It may be qualified by an adverb. 

3. It expresses an action or event, not a quality. 

Differs from the Participle in c ing ' in the following : — 

1. It may be the subject or the object of a verb. 

2. It cannot be an adjunct of a noun. 

3. It expresses no particular time. 

If, finally, we contrast the Infinitive in c ing ' with the Ad 
jective of the same form, we find the following results : — 

The Infinitive in c ing' — 

Agrees with the Adjective in c ing ' in nothing except in 
being a Part of Speech. 

Differs from the Adjective in e ing ' in the following : — 

1. It may be the subject or the object of a verb. 

2. It cannot qualify a noun. 

3. It takes an object, when transitive. 



VARIOUS FORMS IN ' ING.' 93 

There is no risk of confounding the Infinitive with the Ad- 
ective of the same form : so that the tabulation of their differ- 
ences is rather a refinement of distinguishing than a matter of 
3ractical service. It is chiefly the Infinitive and the Verbal 
NToun that there is any danger of confounding. The follow- 
.ng is a table of the agreements and differences between them, 
Prom the point of view of the Yerbal Noun (Q. 7) : — 

The Verbal Noun in e ing ' — 
Agrees with The Infinitive in c ing ' in the following : — 

1. It may be the subject or the object of a verb. 

2. It may be qualified by an adjective. 

•.Differs from the Infinitive in c ing ' in the following : — 

1. It may be inflected for Number. 

2. It may have the indefinite article before it. 

3. It cannot take an object after it. 

4. It cannot be qualified by an adverb. 

The chief distinction of the verbal noun from the infinitive, 
in the absence of Inflection, is the indefinite article : just as the 
chief distinction of the infinitive from the verbal noun is the 
taking an object or a qualifying adverb. 

As an exercise in distinguishing parts of speech, the pupil 
; may be asked to distinguish the verbal noun from the participle 
and from the adjective ; though in actual parsing there is no 
; risk of confounding them. 



The Verbal Noun in c ing ' — 

Agrees with the Participle in c ing* in no grammatical 
function. 



y4 INFLECTION. 

Differs from the Participle in e ing ' in the following : — 

1. It may be the subject or the object of a verb. 

2. It may be inflected for number. 

3. It cannot be an adjunct of a noun. 

4. It expresses no particular time. 

5. It cannot take an object or an adverb. 

The Verbal Noun in 'ing' — 

Agrees with the Adjective in ' ing ' in no grammatical 
function. 

Differs from the Adjective in c ing ' in the following : — 

1. It may be the subject or the object of a verb. 

2. It may be inflected for Number. 

3. It cannot qualify a noun. 

In the case of the Participle in c ing ' the chief difficulty 
arises in distinguishing it under certain circumstances from 
the Adjective of the same form (Q. 8). The agreements and 
differences of these two. Parts of Speech may be tabulated as 
follows : — 

The Participle in 'ing' — 

Agrees with the Adjective in c ing ' in the following : — 
1. It may be an Adjunct of a noun. 

Differs from the Adjective in f ing ' in the following : — 

1. It expresses an action, not a quality. 

2. It expresses a particular time. 

3. It cannot be inflected for degree. 

This distinction is the most important in connection with 
the Participle in ' ing/ as being the one most likely to be 



VARIOUS FORMS IN ' ING.' 95 

neglected. The agreements and differences of the Participle 
in ' ing ' and the Infinitive and the Verbal Noun of the same 
form, have been already tabulated : the teacher, if he thinks it 
necessary to make the variation, will easily modify the tables 
so as to suit the point of view of the Participle. 

The distinction between the Adjective and the Participle in 
c ing ' is of such importance that it may be repeated from the 
point of view of the Adjective. 

The Adjective in c ing ' — 
Agrees with the Participle in c ing-' in the following: — 
1. It is an adjunct of a noun. 

Differs from the Participle in 'ing ' in the following: — 

1. It expresses a quality, not an action. 

2. It may be inflected for degree. 

3. It expresses no particular time. 

Q. 10. The infinitive is called a Gerund, when it expresses 
a purpose. The infinitive in ing, preceded by the preposition 
'for/ has the same meaning, and may receive the same name. 

In stating the differences between the infinitive in ing and 
the participle of the same form, it was mentioned that the 
infinitive could not be used as an adjunct of a noun. This 
holds as regards the infinitive proper. But in its gerundial 
sense, by a process of ellipsis, the infinitive may be used 
as a sort of adjective phrase. In such expressions as — 
f scissors to grindf c a house to let,'' — the gerunds ' to grind ' 
and ' to let,' are virtually adjective phrases, qualifying the 
the nouns c scissors ' and ' house.' 

Q. 14, 15. ' Trust ' and ■ shake ' are verbs of the New and 
of the Old Conjugations respectively. The inflection for 



96 INFLECTION. 

Tense, Number, and Person, corresponds to the inflections of 
* Call ' and £ Drive ' at p. 135 of the Grammar. 

Q. 18. The black-board may be used to give prominence to 
the inflections made with auxiliaries. The teacher may write 
up such abbreviated tables as the following : — 

Inflections with the Auxiliary ' To Be.' 

Passive Voice — e Be ' joined to perfect participle, ' I am 

called.' 
Frogressive Tense — e Be ' joined to imperfect participle, ' I 

am calling.' 

Inflections with the Auxiliary 'To Have.' 

Present Ferfect Tense — Present of ' Have ' joined with 

perf. part., c I have called.' 
Past Perfect Tense — Past of e Have ' joined with perf. 
• part., c I had called.' 
Ferfect Participle Active — Imperf. part, of ( Have 'joined 

with perf. part., c having called.' 
Continuous Tenses — ' Have,' ' had,' &c, joined with 

c been ' and impf. part., c I have been calling,' ' I had 

been calling.' 

Q. 22. The various uses of ' Do ' may be numbered and 
tabulated to assist the memory. 

' DO ' IS USED IN VARIOUS FORMS OF THE VERB. 

1. In the Emphatic form — I do believe you. 

2. In the Interrogative form— Do you believe me ? 

3. In the Negative form — You do not believe me. 

4. As a Substitute for another verb— Do you believe me ? 
I do. 



INFLECTIONS WITH AUXILIARIES. 97 

Q. 23. The various meanings of c May ' may be similarly 
tabulated. 

i May ' Expresses : — 

1. Permission — You may go. 

2. Possibility, or Concession — It may be true. 

3. A Wish— May you be happy. 

Q. 24. The various uses of ' Must ' are numbered in the 
Grammar, and can hardly be further abbreviated. 

Exercise 16— (p. 133). 

Infinitive, Participle, Adjective, Verbal Noun, and Gerund. 

1 ' To live,' infinitive. The infinitive phrase c to live in 
suspense/ is here used in place of a noun, in apposition to c it/ 
the grammatical subject of the sentence. ' In suspense/ is 
an adjective phrase, completion of the incomplete verb ' live.' 

2. * Talking/ infinitive in c ing.' ' Talking/ in this con- 
nection, will stand both the tests that distinguish the Infini- 
tive from the Verbal Noun : it has an object — f overmuch ' — 
after it, and it could not in this meaning have the indefinite 
article * a ' before it. We know that it is not a participle 
from its being the subject of the sentence. By way of exercise, 
one may put the questions — How do you know that it is not a 
verbal noun in ing ; and — How do you know that it is not a 
participle in ing ? 

3. 'To learn/ and c to hear' are both infinitives. c To 
learn ' stands in place of a noun in apposition to ' it : ' and 
'to hear' stands in place of a noun as the object of the verb 

learn.' 

9 



98 INFLECTION. 






The pupil should be asked how he knows that these infini- 
tives are not Gerunds ; and should answer — Because they do 
not express any purpose. 

4. ' Trembling,' is here a Verbal Noun. We know that it 
is not a participle from its being the subject of the sentence ; 
and we know that it is not an infinitive from its taking the 
indefinite article ' a ' before it. 

5. 'Pushing,' imperfect participle in 'ing.' How do we 
know that it is not an infinitive ? Because it does not stand 
in any of the places occupied by Nouns, but qualifies the sub- 
ject of the sentence in the manner of a co-ordinate Adjective. 
How do we know that ' pushing ' is not a participial Adjective ? 
It has no object after it ; is it distinguished from the Adjec- 
tive in any other way ? The only obvious and palpable dis- 
tinction is that it expresses an action going on at a particular 
time. 

' Realised,' perfect Participle, distinguished from the adjec- 
tive by its expressing an action completed at a particular time. 

6. 'Piercing,' an Adjective, restrictive, expressing a quality 
or property of the cry. The quality of the cry is expressed 
without regard to time. 

' Startled/ on the other hand, is a perfect Participle. Being 
startled is not a property or quality of the air, but an effect 
completed at that particular time. 

7. ' Stricken,' though it has the form of a perfect Participle, 
is here a restrictive Adjective. It is used to constitute a 
smaller class e stricken deer,' that is ( wounded deer,' within 
the larger class ' deer.' In such a sentence as — ' Strickem 
with a fatal wound, the poor deer sought the covert to die ; ' 
1 stricken ' is a participle, expressing an action as completed 



EXERCISE ON INFLECTIONS IN ' ING.' 99 

at a particular time, after which something else happened. 
Had the meaning here been, ' Let the deer having been 
stricken — when it has been stricken — go weep,' 'stricken* 
must have been parsed as a perfect Participle on the ground 
that it expressed time. But the meaning is — ' the deer that 
has been stricken,' no matter when : and accordingly ' stricken' 
must be taken as an Adjective. 

c Ungalled,' is an Adjective without any doubt, there being 
no verb ' ungall.' 

' Go weep/ equivalent to — go to weep, go for the purpose of 
weeping. 'Weep' must here probably be parsed as the 
Gerund use of the infinitive, with the sign of the infinitive 
omitted. 

8. ' Loathing,' c dreading,' are Participles, expressing actions 
going on at the time of the principal verb 'live/ Both of 
them have objects after them, and so cannot be mistaken for 
adjectives. 

' To die,' an Infinitive, object after ' dreading.' How do 
we know that it is not a Gerund ? Because it does not ex- 
press any purpose. 

9. ' Doing,' Infinitive in *ing.' It is neither an Adjective 
nor a Participle, for it is the subject of a sentence : and it is 
readily distinguished from the verbal noun of the same form by 
its having an object after it. 

' Disinterested,' is an Adjective : there is no verb ' disin- 
terest.' 

10. 'To please,' seeing that it expresses purpose, being 
equivalent to 'that I might please,' must be regarded as the 
Gerund use of the infinitive. 



100 INFLECTION. 

c To enforce/ c to enchant,' are also Gerunds, expressing 
purpose — e spirits for the purpose of enforcing,' c arts for the 
purpose of enchanting.' 

f Ending,' must here probably be parsed as a verbal Noun, 
though there is really nothing to distinguish it from the 
infinitive in ing. The Infinitive, as well as the Noun, may 
take a possessive Adjective, and may stand as the subject of a 
sentence. 

11. * To tell,' Gerund, equivalent to c for the purpose of 
telling,' or 'that I may tell.' 

Exercise 17. 

Verb Inflections generally. 

1. f Translating,' and c drawing after the life,' are probably 
Infinitives in ing, but the form of the text gives us no decisive 
means of concluding whether they are Infinitives or verbal 
Nouns. In the case of ' translating ' we have simply a bare 
word in ing standing as the subject of a sentence : it has no 
object to fix it as an infinitive, and no indefinite article to fix 
it as a Noun. In the other case, ' drawing after the life,' the 
adverbial phrase ' after the life' would seem to fix f drawing' 
as a Verb and not as a Noun. It might indeed be argued 
that ' after the life' is an adjective phrase qualifying the 
Noun c drawing : ' but this rather does violence to the mean- 
ing. If the sentence had been — e A translation is a kind of 
drawing after the life,' c drawing ' would then have been a 
verbal Noun qualified by an adjective phrase : but as it is, 
when we consider the meaning, we must pronounce both 
( translating ' and ' drawing ' infinitives in ing. 

2. c Weeping,' probably an Infinitive in ing. 



EXERCISE ON VERB INFLECTIONS. 101 

1 May.' In handling this exercise, the teacher should first ask 
— In which of its meanings is f may ' used here ? Ans. In its 
meaning of possibility or concession, the meaning of the clause 
being — 'It is possible that weeping endure for a night,' or, ' I 
admit that weeping may endure for a night.' Having received 
this answer, or given this explanation, the teacher should next 
ask — What is e may ' inflected for ? The strict answer to this 
is — For Tense alone. If we look to the word c may' alone and 
not to the subject, we see only that c may ' is in the Present 
tense : we do not know whether it is in the First Person or 
in the Third Person, in the Singular Number or in the Plural 
Number. When we look to the subject, we see that e may ' 
is in the Third Person and in the Singular Number ; but we 
do not see this by looking to ' may ' alone ; by so doing we 
can know only the Tense. We may be said to know also the 
Voice : but no reference should be made to Voice except in 
verbs that have two Voices. 

Such cross-examination as this is necessary now and then 
to awaken the mind to the exact nature of Inflection. For 
ordinary purposes the pupil may be expected to parse in some 
such form as this :— e May,' a verb of incomplete predication 
having the infinitive ' (to) endure ' as its complement ; used 
here in its meaning of Possibility or Concession ; third person 
singular, Present Indicative. This is full parsing for Parts of 
Speech as well as for Inflection : if only parsing for Inflection 
is required, c third person singular, Present Indicative ' would 
be enough. 

Another way of parsing c may,' as a Part of Speech, is to 
regard it as a Transitive verb, having the infinitive c (to) 
endure' as its object. 

c Endure,' indefinite infinitive of intransitive verb, with the 
sign { to ' omitted ; parsed as the complement or the object of 



102 INFLECTION. 

'may' according as we consider 'may' a verb of incomplete 
predication, or a transitive verb. 

c Cometh ' — Part of Speech : - intransitive verb. Inflection : 
— third person singular, present indicative indefinite. ' Cometh' 
is inflected for Person, Number, Tense, and Mood : we know 
all these particulars by looking to c cometh ' alone, without 
regard to its subject. The verb being intransitive, we do not 
refer to the Voice. 

The case of c cometh ' may be made an opportunity for 
remarking on the meaning of the Present Indefinite, as the 
tense that expresses what is true at all times. 

3. c Shall.' — Part of Speech :— verb of incomplete predica- 
tion, having for its complement the infinitive c (to) fade.' 
4 Shall ' is not here the auxiliary of the inflection for Future 
Time : the third person singular of the Future Tense of 
c fade' is c will fade.' 'Shall fade' has the meaning of 
futurity and something more : it has the peculiar meaning of 
the incomplete verb e shall,' namely, obligation, necessity. 
The meaning of the sentence is — 'It cannot but be that thy 
eternal summer will not fade.' Inflection: — Looking to 
' shall ' alone we know only that it is in the Present Tense ; 
we do not know whether it is in the First Person or in the 
Third Person, in the Singular or in the Plural, in the 
Indicative Mood or in the Subjunctive. But looking also to 
the subject and to the form of the sentence, we see that it is 
in the — third person singular, present indicative. 

c Fade. ' — Part of Sp eech : — Intransitive verb. Inflection : — 
infinitive, complement of the incomplete verb c shall.' 

' Shall ' like ' may,' may be regarded as a transitive verb, 
having the infinitive e (to) fade ' as its object. 

4. c See.' — Part of Speech : — transitive verb, object 
' matter.' Inflection : — From all that we know by looking 



EXERCISE ON YERB INFLECTIONS. 103 

only to the word e see/ it might be the first person singular, 
present indicative, or any person in the plural of that tense. 
But when we look to the rest of the sentence, we find that 
1 see ' is here the Imperative form of the verb. 

Being in the passive voice, it has no object : the object of 
the action tliat it expresses is here its grammatical subject. 

' Endued.' — Part of Speech : — transitive verb. Inflection : — 
Perfect participle, passive voice. The pupil may here be 
reminded that the perfect participle of transitive verbs is 
always passive. 

'Press.' Part of Speech : — intransitive verb. 'Press' is 
usually 'a transitive verb ; but like the allied verb c push,' it has 
passed into an intransitive meaning. Inflection : —infinitive 
indefinite. This infinitive must be taken as the secondary 
or indirect object of ' see : ' but in point of fact, the infinitive 
here is a poetical license. Strict grammar would require 
the participle ' pressing,' the whole of the second line being a 
participial adjunct of the object f matter.' 

Another way of parsing c press ' would be to regard e see > 
as a verb of incomplete predication, and f press ' as an infini- 
tive complement with the sign of the infinitive omitted as is 
the case after e may,' c can,' and other incomplete verbs ■ See ' 
would then be a transitive verb as regarded f matter,' and an 
incomplete verb as regarded c press.' 

5. ' Was predisposed.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb. 
Inflection : — passive voice, third person singular, past indi- 
cative indefinite. We may know voice, person, number, 
tense, and mood, by looking simply to the verb. To keep 
beginners awake to the mechanism of inflection, the teacher 
should ask — what part of speech c was ' is, what f predisposed ' 
is by itself, how the past tense is made up, and what inflec- 



104 INFLECTION. 

tions the verb ' predispose ' undergoes without the aid of 
auxiliaries. Such questions may be repeated now and then 
when a passive turns up. 

e To think.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb, having 
' ill ' as an object. Inflection : — infinitive indefinite. The 
infinitive is here really an object after the preposition 'to,' 
the meaning being that ' he was predisposed to thinking ill, 
&c.' In strict grammar the full expression would be ' pre- 
disposed to to think ill.' We must suppose that 'to' the 
preposition, and ' to ' the sign of the infinitive, have been con- 
fusedly run into one. 

* Bequiring.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb, object — 
' words.' Inflection : — participle imperfect. We know that 
it is not an infinitive from its being an adjectival adjunct of 
1 causes : ' and that it is not an adjective, from its having an 
object. 

6. ' Maketh. ' Tart of Speech : — transitive verb, object — 
' father.' Inflection : — Active voice, third person singular, 
present indicative indefinite. See ' cometh,' No. 2. 

7. c Examine. ' Refer back to ' see,' No. 4. Part of 
Speech: — transitive verb, object — the clauses after 'whether,' 
to end of sentence. These clauses are called Noun Clauses, 
because they stand in place of nouns. Inflection: — Active 
voice, imperative mood. 

c Be.' Part of Speech: — verb of incomplete predication, 
complement -'true.' Infection : — third person singular, 
present subjunctive. There is nothing in the form of the 
word itself to indicate of what person or of what number it is : 
to know this we must look to the subject. 

8. 'Have.' Tart of Speech .-—transitive verb. Infection: 



EXERCISE ON YERB INFLECTIONS. 105 

—active voice, second person plural, present indicative. Be- 
bre we can be sure of person, number, or mood, we must 
ook to the context. 

'To conceive.' Tart of Speech: — transitive verb, here 
ised intransitively, no object being directly stated. Inflec- 
tion : — infinitive, gerund meaning. 

'To deter,' and ' to execute,' are parsed exactly like 'to 
conceive. ' 

9. 'Tell.' Part of .Speech .-—transitive verb, object — 
'can this be death' (Noun Clause). Inflection: — impera- 
tive mood. 

' Can.' See Nos. 2 and 3, ' may ' and ' shall.' Part of 
Speech: — verb of incomplete predication, quasi- auxiliary ; 
'complement— ' be death.' Inflection : — third person singular, 
present indicative, interrogative form. We cannot tell per- 
son, number, or mood from looking merely to the inflection. 
The interrogative form consists here in placing the verb be- 
fore the subject. 

1 Be,' infinitive with ' to' omitted, part of the complement 
of ' can.' 

10. c Did.' Part of Speech : — here a quasi- auxiliary verb, 
used in making up an Emphatic form. Inflection: — third 
person singular, past indicative. 

' Lie.' Part of Speech : —transitive verb, object — ' tempest.' 
Inflection : — infinitive indefinite : used after ' did ' to make up 
the emphatic form of the first person singular past indefinite 
indicative, of the active voice of the verb ' to see.' 

'Dropping.' Part of Speech: — transitive verb 'fire.' 
Inflection : — active voice, imperfect participle. We know 
that it is not an infinitive from its being an adjectival adjunct 



106 INFLECTION. . 

of c tempest ; ' and that it is not an adjective from its having 
an object. 

11. c Shall.' Part of Speech: — see No. 3. If it is taken 
as an incomplete verb, the complement is ( be an abhorring.' 
1 Be,' itself an incomplete verb, cannot alone complete a pre- 
dicate. Inflection : — third person plnral, present indicative. 
'Shall' is not distinctively inflected for either person or number, 
except in the second person singular. 

c Abhorring ' is here a verbal noun. The indefinite article 
is decisive. 

12. One way of parsing c be ' is to suppose an ellipsis of 
e may ■ in its function of expressing a wish, and to regard ' be ' 
as an infinitive after e may,' and part of its complement. 

Otherwise, we must suppose this to be a peculiar use of the 
third person singular, present subjunctive, for the purpose of 
expressing a wish. 

' Skirts.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb, object — 
e down.' Inflection : — active voice, third person singular, 
present indicative indefinite. The inflection in this case is 
distinctive for person, number, and mood : no other person 
either of the singular or of the plural has the same inflection. 

13. r Is.' Part of Speech ; — here the auxiliary of the 
Passive inflection. Inflection : — third person singular, present 
indicative. 

c Apprehended.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb. In- 
flection ; — passive voice, perfect participle : used along with 
the auxiliary .* is ' to make up the third person singular present 
indefinite indicative of the passive voice of the verb c to 
apprehend.' 



EXERCISE ON VERB INFLECTIONS. 107 

c Has.' Part of Speech : — here an auxiliary verb, used with 
'been ' to make up the present perfect of the passive voice. 
Inflection : — third person singular, present indicative. 

' Been.' Auxiliary of the passive voice ; perfect participle. 

'Overcome.' Part of Speech: — transitive verb. Inflec- 
tion : — passive voice, perfect participle, used with the auxiliaries 
' has ' and ' been ' to make up the third person singular present 
perfect indicative of the passive voice of the verb ' to over- 
come.' 

14. ' Would.' Part of Speech : — not an auxiliary verb 
here, but a verb of incomplete predication without any refer- 
ence to Future time. It is completed by the infinitive ' (to) 
play.' Inflection : — third person plural, past indicative. 

' Play.' Part of speech : — intransitive verb. Inflection : — 
infinitive indefinite, with ' to ' omitted, complement of ' would.' 
* Would play ' does not express future time from a past point, 
but means c were willing (or were pleased) to play.' 

15. ■ Rushed.' Part of Speech : — intransitive verb. Inflec- 
tion : — third person plural, past indefinite indicative of the 
verb ' to rush.' 

'Driven.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb. Inflection: 
— passive voice, perfect participle. 

16. ' Leave.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb, object — 
c me.' Inflection : — active voice, imperative mood (used in 
the sense of entreaty). 

' Diest.' Part of Speech: — intransitive verb (neuter) 
Inflection : — second person singular, present indefinite indica- 
tive. The second person singular is very rarely used, the 
plural form being used along witb ' you,' which, is the ordinary 
pronoun of the second person (Gram., p. 44). 



108 INFLECTION. 

' Know.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb, object — ' where 
to go. 7 Inflection : — active voice, first person singular present 
indefinite indicative. 

' To go.' Fart of Speech : — intransitive verb. Inflection : 
— infinitive gerund. ' Where to go ' is equivalent to ' any 
place that I may go to,' or c any place useful for going to.' 
The phrase is elliptical : the gerund must be parsed as an 
adverbial qualification. 

17. 'Tolls.' Part of Speech: — transitive verb, object — 
'knell.' Inflection :— active voice, third person singular, 
present indefinite indicative. 

' Parting.' Part of Speech : — intransitive verb. Inflection : 
— imperfect participle. c Parting ' is not here an adjective : 
it does not express a quality of c day,' but an action that the 
day is supposed to be undergoing at the time of the tolling of 
the curfew. 

( Lowing,' is also the imperfect participle of an intransitive 
verb. ' The lowing herd ' are not a separate class of animals 
from the herd that do not low : the word ' lowing ' expresses 
an action of the herd at a particular time, and so is a parti- 
ciple and not an adjective. 

' Winds.' Part of Speech : — intransitive verb. Inflection : — 
third person singular, present indefinite indicative. 

18. 'Wouldst.' Part of Speech: — the auxiliary of the 
Future tense, used here by a peculiar idiom to express con- 
tingent futurity, future action in a supposed case. ' Wouldst 
thou demolish a driven leaf ' — if it came in thy way, or with 
some such supposition. Inflection :— second person singular, 
past indicative. 

'Demolish.' Part of Speech: — transitive verb, object — 



EXERCISE ON VERB INFLECTIONS. 109 

'leaf.' Inflection: — infinitive indefinite, used with the aux- 
iliary ' wouldst ' to make up a tense of contingent futurity for 
the verb ' to demolish.' 

' Driven.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb. Inflection : 
— passive voice, perfect participle ; a participle under circum- 
stances where the word might be an adjective. 

19. ' Hast.' Part of Speech : — auxiliary verb, used with 
'forgotten' to make up the present perfect tense. Inflec- 
tion : — second person singular, present indicative. Here as 
in Nos. 9 and 18, the interrogative form consists in putting 
the auxiliary or quasi- auxiliary verb before the subject. 

'Forgotten.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb, object — 
'how soon we must sever' (Noun Clause). Inflection: — 
active voice, perfect participle, used with ' past ' to make up 
the present perfect indicative of the verb ' to forget. ' 

'Must.' Part of Speech : — quasi- auxiliary verb, here used 
in its meaning of s compulsion from without.' Inflection : — 
' Must ' is invariable for tense, number, and person ; but we 
know by looking to the context that it is here in the first 
person plural past indicative. 

' Sever. ' Part of Speech : — intransitive verb. Inflection : — 
infinitive indefinite, completion of the incomplete verb 
' must. ' 

20. ' Gave.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb, object — 
'way.' c Gave way ' is so common a combination, and is 
used in a sense so far independent of the literal meaning of 
the words ' give ' and ' way,' that it may be taken as a com- 
pound verb. Inflection : — active voice, third person singular, 
past indefinite indicative. 

' Consented.' Part of Speech : — intransitive verb. ( Con- 
10 



110 INFLECTION. 

sented to,' may also be taken as a compound verb. Inflec- 
tion : — third person singular, past indefinite indicative. 

f Ruined,' transitive verb, active voice, third person singular, 
past indefinite indicative. 

' Pending.' Part of Speech :— 'intransitive verb. Inflec- 
tion : — imperfect participle. 

' Generated.' Parsed like 'ruined.' 

e Leading.' Part of Speech /—transitive verb. Inflection : 
— active voice, imperfect participle. ' Leading ' is obviously 
a co-ordinate participle. c Pending ' might at first glance be 
taken as restrictive, but when we look narrowly we see that 
' the negotiations ' would alone be sufficient to denote the 
negotiations referred to, and that f pending ' superadds infor- 
mation about them, and so is co-ordinate. 

21. c Should.' Part of Speech : — Auxiliary verb, used to 
express a supposed future time. Inflection : — second person 
plural past indicatiye of the verb c shall.' 

' See.' Part of Speech .-—transitive verb, object — c flock.' 
Inflection : — infinitive indefinite, used along with the auxiliary 
' should ' to make up a tense of supposed futurity for the verb 
' see.' 

'Picking.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb, objects— 
' where (it liked),' and c what it liked.' .Inflection : — active 
voice, imperfect participle. 

' Liked.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb, object — c what.' 
Infl ection : — third person singular, past indefinite indicative. 
' Taking.' Parsed like c picking.' 

' Wanted,' Parsed like ' liked.' In order to bring out what 
is the object of ' wanted,' we must state the full expression 
for the elliptical clause e as much as it wanted : ' which is — 
< as much as the quantity that it wanted.' ' That,' under- 
stood, is the object of c wanted.' 



EXERCISE ON VERB INFLECTIONS. Ill 

* Gathering,' c reserving,' keeping.' Parsed like 'picking.' 

1 Got.' Fart of Speech : — transitive verb, object — ' that ' 
understood. Inflection : — third person plural, past indefinite 
indicative. 

' Sitting.' Part of Speech : — intransitive verb. Inflection ' 
— imperfect participle. 

1 Looking/ Parsed like e sitting.' ' Looking on,' is a com- 
pound verb. 

' Was.' Fart of Speech /—auxiliary verb, used in making 
up the Past Progressive tense. Inflection : — third person 
singular, past indicative. 

' Devouring.' Fart of Speech : — transitive verb, object — 
'it.' Inflection: — imperfect participle, used with 'was' to 
make up the Past Progressive tense of the verb c to devour.' 

' Throwing,' and c wasting,' are parsed like ' devouring.' 
* Was ' is understood to each of them. \ Throwing about ' is 
a compound verb. 

' Touched.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb. Inflection : 
— third person singular, past indefinite subjunctive. We do 
not know that the mood is subjunctive until we look to the 
conjunction of Condition, f if.' 

c Flying ' and e tearing ' are participles. ■ Flying ' itself is 
an intransitive verb : but if we take ' flying upon ' as a com- 
pound verb, we may regard the compound as transitive, 
having 'it' as an object. 

' Would.' Fart of Speech : — here, as in No. 8, an auxiliary 
verb used to express contingent futurity. Inflection : — second 
person plural, past indicative of 'will.' 

' Practised.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb. Inflection : 
— passive voice, perfect participle : used along with ' is ' to 
make up the third person singular, present indefinite indica- 
tive passive of the verb f to practise.' 



112 INFLECTION. 

• Established. ' Parsed like e practised.' 

22. c Mouldering,' c drenclliDg, , c driving.' These words are 
very much of the nature of adjectives. They point rather to 
inseparable qualities than to passing actions. It could hardly 
be considered an error to parse them as imperfect participles 
of intransitive verbs : but it is probably more correct to take 
them as adjectives. They are all co-ordinate adjectives : they 
cannot be said to restrict. 

c Beat.' Part of Speech : — intransitive verb : but if it is 
taken along with 'on' asa compound verb, the compound is 
transitive, governing ' bones ' as object. Inflection : — per- 
fect participle * used with the auxiliary c have ' to form the 
third person plural present perfect indicative active of the 
verb ' to beat.' 

Let.' Part of Speech : — transitive verb, object — e (to) 
sleep.' Inflection : — active voice, imperative mood. 

i Sleep.' Part of Speech : — intransitive verb (neuter). 
Inflection : — infinitive indefinite, with sign * to ' omitted, used 
as object of the verb * let.' 



SYNTAX. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Answers to Questions — (p. 175). 

The only question in this series that cannot be answered by 
a repetition or simple modification of the words of the Gram- 
mar is No. 15. In such a sentence as — c He that hath ears 
to hear, let him hear/ the relative clause, ' that hath ears to 
hear,' must not be regarded as directly qualifying the pronoun. 
A pronoun cannot be either enlarged or restricted by an ad- 
jective, because, indeed, being merely a word of reference, it 
has no independent meaning to enlarge, restrict, or qualify in 
any way. A relative clause coming after a personal pronoun 
serves the purpose of declaring the reference of the pronoun : 
to explain its position thoroughly, we must suppose the omis- 
sion of a noun in apposition, which noun, and not the pro- 
noun, is restricted or enlarged by the relative clause. We 
must suppose the full expression to be — c He, I mean, the man 
that hath ears to hear, let him hear.' So in the sentence — 
'Them that honour me, I will honour,' we may suppose the 
full expression to be — e Them, I mean the persons that 
honour me, &c.' See Exercise 18, Nos. 16, 33. 

All adjuncts of Pronouns must be of the nature of nouns in 
apposition, making known the actual reference. Thus, in the 
sentence (Grammar, p. 42) — c I, James Brown, of Duke 



114 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 

Street, St. James's, do hereby declare ' — c James Brown, of 
Duke Street, St. James's,' must be analysed as a noun with 
adjuncts in apposition to the pronoun c I.' Similarly, in the 
sentence — e We English occupy a middle ground &c.,' c Eng- 
lish ' is a noun in apposition to e we.' 

For other instances turn to Exercise 7, No. 20 (p. 54) j 
Exercise 15, No. 7 (p. 129) ; Exercise 17, No. 9 (p. 151). 

' It is my wish that you, my boy, should visit the places 
&c ' ' My boy ' is analysed as a noun with a possessive 
adjective, in apposition to * you.' 

' Yes ! where is he, the champion and the child, 

Of all that's great or little, wise or wild ; 

Whose game was empires, and whose stakes were thrones.' 

All this sentence after ' he,' describes what e he ' refers to, 
and is analysed as being in apposition to c he.' ' Is' has here 
its meaning of 'exists;' f where' is an adverbial adjunct of 
the predicate ; and s he ' is the subject. In a tabulated 
analysis of the sentence, the last part would appear as fol- 
lows : — 

c the champion of all that's great 
or little, wise or wild.' 
II. Nouns with Adjuncts J 2. 'the child of all that's great or 
in apposition to Sub-\ &c' 

ject | 3. c whose game was empires.' 

. 4. c whose stakes were thrones.' 

Take the other sentence indicated — e Tell me, my soul, can 
this be death.' Here the subject is ' thou ' understood, and 
f my soul ' is in apposition to ' thou.' 

There is room for a great deal of minute discussion regard- 
ing the exact force of a relative clause attached to a pronoun. 



THE ADJUNCT OF A PEONOTJN. 115 

I believe the explanation of it by a supposed ellipsis to be tlie 
most satisfactory. It may be maintained that the relative 
clause is used to restrict the reference of the pronoun : but to 
this it may be objected that the function of the pronoun is to 
refer to something otherwise specified and made definite in 
the mind of the reader or hearer. 

While a pronoun cannot be restricted, having no definite 
sphere to restrict, it may have a co-ordinate statement at- 
tached to it, either by a co-ordinating participle or by a co- 
ordinating relative. It cannot have a restrictive phrase or 
clause attached because it is supposed to refer to something 
already specified : but once having directed us to a specific 
something, it may have attached to it a co-ordinate phrase or 
clause superadding information about that something. Take 
for example the following sentence regarding princes : — 
1 They, being men and not gods, can give wealth and titles, 
but not virtues. ' Here the reference of ' they ' is to a definite 
subject previously mentioned, and the participial phrase is a 
co-ordinate statement by way of explanation of the predicate. 
Take, as another example, the following, regarding an indi- 
vidual previously mentioned: — c He, who never murmured a,t 
his own misfortunes, now wept over the misfortunes of his 
friend.' Such phrases and clauses are quite common. They 
must be analysed as co-ordinate adjective clauses to the sub- 
ject referred to by the pronoun. Other examples are : — 
e Hoping to see you soon, I am your affectionate friend ; ' 
c Entering the house as a stranger, he at once made himself at 
home ; ' c Overjoyed at their success, they now expected to 
carry everything before them.' 

In handling the Analysis of Sentences, it may be found 
convenient to put on the black-board a table of the possible 



116 



ANALYSIS OE SENTENCES. 



varieties of simple Subject, and the adjuncts admissible for 
each. Some such table as the following may answer the 
purpose : — 



I. Subject. 



Noun 



Pronoun 



Infinitive simple or with 

1. Complement. 

2. Object. 

3. Adverb or Adverbial j 

Phrase. 



II. Attributive Adjuncts of 
Subject. 

1. Adjective. 

2. Noun for Adj. 

3. Adverb for Adj. 

4. Possessive case. 
Noun in apposition. 

6. Prepositional Phrase. 

7. Participial Phrase. 

8. Adjective clause. 

Noun in apposition (with or with- 
out adjuncts). 

Co-ordinate participial phrase or 
relative clause. 

1. Definite article. 

>2. Possessive adjective. 

3. Possessive case. 



The same table will answer for the Object and its Attribu- 
tive Adjuncts, the enlargements of the Object being the same 
as the enlargement of the Subject. For the Predicate we 
may draw up some such table as the following : — 



TABLE OF ADJUNCTS. 117 

[II. Simple Predicate. YI. Adverbial Adjuncts 

or Predicate. 

"1. Adverb. 

2. Adverbial Phrase in form of — 

(1) Noun. 

(2) Noun and Adjunct. 
Yerb: Simple, Com- J , . ... .,, 

r <^ (3) Preposition with noun. 

^ J (4) Participle or Particip. 

Phrase. 
(5) Gerund'or Infinitive. 
-3. Adverbial Clause. 

These tables may be put on the black board side by side 
ong with the Object and its Adjuncts, giving a sort of bird's 
ye view of the whole Analysis of Sentences. 

Exercise 18— (p. 173). 

Analysis of Sentences. 

1. Amid the roses fierce Eepentance rears 
Her snaky crest. 

| I. Subject, c Eepentance.' 

II. Attributive adjunct of < < &sroe ; ^u^ co . ordinate . 

Subject C 

III. Predicate, c rears.' 
IY. Object, c crest.' 

Y. Attributive adjuncts of ( c her,' possessive adj. 

Object v. { snaky,' adj. co-ordinate. 

| YI. Adverbial adjunct of C c amid the roses,' adverbial 
Predicate I phrase of Place. 



118 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 

2. Man, the subject of Politics, can speak. 
I. Subject, 'man.' 
II. Attributive Adjuncts f c the subject of Politics^ noun, 
of Subject v. with adjuncts, in apposition. 

C 1. Verb of incomplete predi- 
III. Predicate < cation, 'can.' 

L 2. Complement, c speak.' 



3. Home they brought her warrior dead. 

I. Subject, 'they.' 

III. Predicate, 'brought.' 

IV. Object, ' warrior.' 

V. Attributive Adjuncts CI. 'her, 9 possessive adjective. 

of Object I 2. ' dead,' adjective, co-ordinate. 

VI. Adverbial Adjuncts ( 'home,' adv. phrase of place, prep. 

of Predicate \ omitted. 

4. His purpose is to avert bad consequences. 
I. Subject, 1 ' purpose.' 

II. Attributive adjunct f c his,' possessive adjective, restric- 
of Subject { tive. 

r \. Verb of incomplete predication 
'is.' 
III. Predicate «^2. Complement, e to avert bad con- 

sequences,' infinitive with ob- 
ject. 

5. It fell upon a raw and gusty day 

The troubled Tiber chafing with his shores. 

I. Subject, c it. ' 
III. Predicate, ' fell.' 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 119 



1. 'upon a raw and gusty day.' 
adv. phrase of time and circum- 

VI. Adverbial adjuncts ) ^ , , ' ,,,„., 

fPd't \ tabled Tiber chafing with 

his shores,' participial adverbial 
phrase of circumstance (Nomi- 
native Absolute). 



6. Now leave complaining, and begin your tea. 

Compound Sentence. — A-f-B. [A] Now leave complain- 
ing ; [B] begin your tea. A and B are united by the cumu- 
lative conjunction ' and.' 

Analysis or A. 

[I. Subject, 'you/ understood.'] 

III. Predicate, 'leave.' 

IV. Object, 'complaining,' infinitive. 

VI. Adverbial adjunct of } . , 7 , > m . 

p ' t 'now, adverb of Time. 

Analysis or B. 

[I. Subject, ' you,' understood.] 

III. Predicate, 'begin.' 

IV. Object, ' tea.' 

jVI. Attributive Adjunct \ ' , . ,. ,. 

n I your, po5sess^^'e adjective. 

7, He loved planting and building, and brought in a politer 
I way of living. 

Compound Contracted Sentence. — A -f- B -f- C. [A] 

lie loved planting ; [B] (he loved) building ; [C] (he) brought 



120 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

in a politer way of living. A, B, and C, are united by the 
cumulative conjunction c and.' 

Analysis of A. 
I. Subject, '-he.' 
III. Predicate, * loved.' 
IY. Object, ( planting,' infinitive. 

Analysis or B. 
I. Subject, ' lie.' 
III. Predicate, Moved.' 
IY. Object, c building/ infinitive. 

Analysis of C. 
I. Subject, 'he.' 
III. Predicate, c brought in/ compound verb. 
IY. Object, ' way/ 

/ 1. f a/ indefinite article. 
V. Attributive Adjuncts ) *' 'V^zr,' adjective, compart 
of Object \ ^e degree. | 

3. 'of living, pr epositional adj . 



( 



phrase. 



8. Leaves have their time to fall, 

And flowers to wither at the North Wind's breath. 

Compound Contracted Sentence. — A -f- B. [A] Leaves 
have their time to fall ; [B] flowers (have their time) to wither 
at the North Wind's breath. A and B are united by the 
cumulative conjunction c and.' 

Analysis of A. 
I. Subject, 'leaves.' 
III. Predicate, ' have. ' 
IY. Object, ' time.' 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 



121 



V. Attributive Adjuncts 
of Object 






1. 'their/ possessive adi. 

to fall,' gerundial adjective 
phrase. 

Analysis oe B. 



I. Subject, 'flowers.' 

III. Predicate, 'have.' 

IV. Object, 'time.' 



V. Attributive Adjuncts 
of Object 



■ 



'• their,' Possessive Adjunct. 
'• to wither at the North Wind's 

breath,' gerundial adjective 

phrase. 

Note. — In this sentence the gerunds undoubtedly qualify 
the object, not the predicate verb, and so stand in place of 
adjectives. We may suppose the ellipsis of some such clause 
as 'that is set apart for.' In B the gerundial infinitive is 
qualified by an adverbial phrase of cause. 

9. It was a shame for them to mar their complexions with 
long lying abed. 
I. Subject, < it.' 



II. Noun phrase in ap- 
position to Subject 



III. Predicate 2 

YI. Adverbial Adjunct of j 
Predicate { 



' to mar their complexions with 
long lying a-bed,' infinitive, 
with object' and adverbial 
adjuncts. 

1. Verb of incomplete predica- 

tion, 'was.' 

2. Complement, 'a shame.' 

'for them,' adverbial phrase of 
place. 



10. Now, therefore, let thy servant abide in place of the 

lad. a bondman to my lord. 

11 



122 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

[I. Subject, ' you/ understood. ] 

' 1. Verb of incomplete predication, 
< let/ 

III. Predicate </ 2 ' Complement, 'abide in place 

of the lad, a bondman/ &c, 
infinitive, with two adverbial 
phrases of Manner. 

IV. Object, c servant.' 

V. Attributive adjunct > , mi , . , . . . 

J > c They, possessive adjective, 

of Object ) 

VI. Adverbial Adjuncts ( 1. c now/ adverb of Time. 

of Predicate \ 2. ' therefore/ adverb of Cause. 

Note. — ' A bondman to my lord/ This must be taken as 
an adverbial qualification of £ abide/ We may suppose an 
ellipsis of ' for ' or c as. ' 

11. With droll sobriety they raised a smile 

At Folly's cost, themselves unmoved the while. 

I. Subject, c they.' 

III. Predicate, ' raised.' 

IV. Object, < smile.' 

V. Attributive adjunct of Object, c a/ 

1. c With droll sobriety/ adv. 
phrase of Manner. 

2. f At Folly's cost/ adv. phrase 

VI. Attributive adjuncts J of Cause. 
of Predicate \ 3. f themselves unmoved the 

while/ participial adverbial 
phrase of Manner (Nomin- 
ative Absolute). 



EXEKCISE ON ANALYSIS. 



123 



12. Collecting, classifying, contrasting, and weighing facts, 
are processes made use of in teaching method. 

collecting, classifying, contrast- 
ing and weighing facts,' a 



I. Subject 



III. Predicate 



plural subject, made up by 
the cumulation of four in- 
finitives, each with 'facts* 
as an object. 
' 1. Verb of incomplete predic- 
ation, c are.' 

Complement, ' processes made 
use of in teaching method,' 
noun with compound ad- 
junct. 



13. The hoy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but him had fled. 
Complex Sentence.— A + a. 

I. Subject, ' boy.' 

II. Attributive adjunct of Subject, { the.* 
III. Predicate, ' stood.' 



VI. Adverbial Adjuncts 
of Predicate 



on the burning deck, whence all 
but him had fled,' adverbial 
phrase of Place, the noun 
c deck ' being enlarged by a 
co-ordinate adjective phrase 
— c whence all,' &c. (a). 
Analysis op (a). 
[I. Subject, c men,' understood.'] 

II. Attributive Adjunct J < all but him,' adjective qualified 
of Subject I ty adverbial phrase. 



124 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 

III. Predicate, ' had fled. 

VI. Adverbial Adjunct f c whence,' pronominal adverb of 
of Predicate (. place. 

14. The rose that all are praising, is not the rose for me. 

Complex Sentence. — A -f- a. 
I. Subject, 'rose.' 

II. Attributive Adjuncts) 

of Subject I 2 ' that a11 are P raisin S>' «#«e- 

tive clause (a). 

( 1. Verb of incomplete predica- 

III. Predicate ) ^u, { is not.' 

2. Complement, 'the rose for 
me/ woim m£7i adjuncts. 



\ 



Analysts of (a). 
I. [_Subject, 'persons,' understood. 
II. Attributive adjunct of Subject, 'all,' indefinite numeral. 

III. Predicate, 'are praising.' 

IV. Object, 'that,' restrictive relative. 

15. All controversies that can never end, had better per- 
haps never begin. 

Complex Sentence. — A -\- a. 

I. Subject, ' controversies.' 

/- 1. e all,' indefinite numeral. 
II. Attributive adjuncts \ 2. 'that can never end,' adjec- 
of Subject 1 u ve dause (a) 

III. Predicate, ' had/ 

IV. Object, ' never begin,' infinitive with adverb. 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 125 

VI. Adverbial adjuncts ( 1. * Better,' adv. of Manner 

of Predicate (. 2. c perhaps,' adv. of Uncertainty 

Analysis of (a). 
I. Subject, c that.* 

- 1. Ferb o/ incomplete predica- 
III. Predicate \ Won,, ' can.' 

(. 2. Complement/ end/ infinitive. 
VI. Adverlial^adMnct J « never/ adwrb o/ Kme . 

16. He that fights and runs away 
May live to fight another day. 

Complex Sentence. — A + a + aA + aB. 

I. Subject, 'he/ 

II. Apposition adjunct c e that fights and runs away/ owZ- 
o/ Subject ( jective clause (a). 

/ 1. Verb of incomplete predica- 
III. Predicate < **o^ 3 ' may.' 

( 2. Complement, f live,' infinitive. 

f *■ to fight another day,' gerundAal 

VI. 4dverbml acZ/unc£ o/ J adverbial phrase of pmpose, 

Predicate \ ( an infinitive qualified by an 

' adverbial phrase) . 

Analysis or (a). 

Compound Sentence. — [A] That fights; [B] that runs 
away. A and B are coupled by the cumulative conjunction 
1 and.' 

Analysis of a A. 

I. Subject, c that,' restrictive relative. 
III. Predicate, ' fights.' 






126 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 

Analysis or a B. 
I. Subject, 'that.' 
III. Predicate, ' runs away/ compound verb. 

Note. — ' That fights and runs away,' cannot be called an 
adjectival adjunct to the pronoun 'he/ but must be parsed 
as an adjunct in apposition. A Pronoun, having no inde- 
pendent meaning, cannot be either limited or extended by an 
adjective. (See above, p. 113.) 

17. Meanwhile opinion gilds with varying rays 
Those painted clouds that beautify our days. 

Complex Sentence.— A -f a. 
I. Subject, ' opinion. ! 

III. Predicate, 'gilds.' 

IV. Object, ' clouds.' 
1. 'those/ demonstrative adj. 

V, Attributive adjuncts \ 2. 'painted,' adj. co-ordinate. 

of Object J 3. ' that beautify our days/ ad- 

jective clause restrictive (a) . 
1. 'meanwhile/ adv. of Time. 



\ 



VI. Adverbial adjuncts a, , , 

J 2. with varying rays, adverbial 
xreaicate \ , , _, 

phrase of Manner. 

Analysis oe (a). 
I. Subject, ' that.' 

III. Predicate, c beautify.' 

IV. Object, ' days.' 
V. Attributive adjunct 

of Object 

18. How France was saved from this humiliation, and how 
the great alliance was preserved, will now be seen. 



I ' our/ possessive adjective. 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 127 

Complex Contracted Sentence. — A + a + B + b. 
[A] How France was saved from this humiliation (will now 
be seen) ■ [B] Low the great alliance was preserved, will now 
be seen. A and B are united by c and.' 

Analysts of A. 

I. Subject, ' how France was saved from this humiliation,' 
noun clause (a). 
III. Predicate, e will be seen.' 
VI. Adverbial adjunct of Predicate, e now/ adv. of Time. 

Analysis of (a). 
I. Subject, c France.' 
III. Predicate, 'was saved.' 

/ 1. c how,' adv. of Manner. 
VI. Adverbial adjuncts \ 2. < from this humiliation,' adv. 
of Predicate J phrase of place (inetaphoricat) 

Analysis of B. 
I. Subject, c how the great alliance was preserved,' noun 
clause (b). 
III. Predicate, f will be seen.' 

VI. Adverbial adjunct of Predicate, ' now,' adv. of Time. 
Analysis of (b). 
I. Subject, Alliance.' 
II. Attributive adjuncts t 'the.' 

of Subject ( 'great/ adj. co-ordinate. 

III. Predicate, f was preserved.' 
VI. Adverbial adjunct of Predicate, l how.' 

19. She loved me for the dangers I had passed. 



128 



ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 



Complex Sentence. — A -f a , 
I. Subject, e she.' 

III. Predicate, 'loved.' 

IV. Object, 'me.' 



YI. Adverbial adjuncts 
of Predicate 



' for the dangers I had passed/ 
adv. phrase of Cause, prepo- 
sition and noun with adjec- 
tive clause (a). 



Analysis or (a). 
I. Subject, ' I.' 
III. Predicate, ' had passed.' 
[IV. Object, ' that ' understood.'] 

20. The forms of a free constitution surviving when its 
spirit is extinct, would perpetuate slavery by rendering it 
more concealed and secure. 

Complex Sentence. — A -|- a. 
I. Subject, i forms.' 

'the.' 
2. e of a free constitution,' adjec- 
tive phrase restrictive. 
1 surviving when its spirit is 
extinct/ participal adjec- 
tive phrase co-ordinate, a 
participle with a qualifying 
adverbial clause (a). 



II. Attributive adjuncts 
of Subject 



III. Predicate, ' would perpetuate.' 
IV : Object, l slavery.' 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 



129 



VI. Adverbial adjunct 
of Predicate 



of Subject 
III. Predicate 



by rendering it more concealed 
and secure,' adv. phrase of 
Cause. 

Analysis of (a). 
I. Subject, c spirit.' 

II. Attributive adjunct ( f its/ possessive case of pro- 
\ noun. 

( Verb ofincom. predication, c is.' 
' Complement, 'extinct.' 
VI. — Adverbial adjunct of Predicate, 'when.' 

21. Disquieted by imaginary alarms, insensible to the real 
danger that awaits them, people are taught to court that 
servitude which will be a source of misery to themselves and 
to posterity. 

Complex Sentence. — A -f- a ± -|- a 2 + gl A + a 2 B. 
I. Subject, c people. ' 

1 disquieted by &c./ partici- 
pial adjective phrase, co- 
ordinate. 
' insensible to the real danger 
that awaits them,' part, 
adj. phrase, ■ co-ordinate, 
comprising adjective clause 

(V- 

Verb of incomplete predica- 
tion, c are taught.' 

Complement, 'to court that 
servitude which &c.,' infini- 
tive with object and adjuncts, 
comprising adjective clause 



II. Attributive adjuncts^ 
of Subject 



III. Predicate 



130 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

Analysis op (a 1 ). 

I. Subject, 'that.' 

III. Predicate, c awaits.' 

IV. Object, 'theni.' 

Analysis of (a ). 

Compound Contracted Sentence. — [A] which will be a 
source of misery to themselves ; [B] (which will be a source 
of misery) to posterity. Conjunction, c and,' cumulative. 

Analysis op a 2 A. 

I. Subject, e which,' improperly used for restrictive c that/ 
1. Verb of incomplete predica- 
tion, c will be.' 

III. Predicate <* 2. Complement, c a source of 

misery to themselves,' 
noun with adjuncts. 
Analysis op a 2 B. 

Exactly like A, except that the Complement is c a source of 
misery to posterity. 9 

22. It is only by the fresh feelings of the heart that man- 
kind can be very powerfully affected. 

Complex Sentence. — A -f- a. 
I. Subject, 'it.' 

II. Noun clause in appo- ( e that mankind can be very 
sition to Subject \ powerfully affected,' (a). 

III. Predicate, 'is' (exists). 

!1. 'only/ adverb of Degree. 
2. 'by the fresh feelings of the 
heart,' adv. phrase of Cause. 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 



131 



Analysis of (a). 
I. Subject, ( mankind. ' 



[II. Predicate 



VI. Adverbial adjunct of* 
redicate 



1. Verb of incomplete predica- 

tion , t can.' 

2. Complement) ' be affected,' 

infinitive. 

'very powerfully/ adv. of Man- 
ner qualified by adv. of 
Degree. 



23. Long and various experience seems to have convinced 
the nations of Europe that nothing but a standing army can 
appose a standing army. 

Complex Sentence.— A + a. 
, I. Subj ect, ' experience. ' 

II. Attributive adjuncts ( ( long and various', adjectives, 
of Subject. ( restrictive. 

1. Verb of incomplete predication 
' seems.' 

2. Complement, 'to have con- 
vinced the nations of Europe 
that nothing but a standing 
army can oppose a standing 
army,' infinitive with object 
and noun clause (a) as com- 
plement. 

Analysis of (a). 
I I. Subject, < thing.' 

( c no but a standing army,' adjec- 

II. Attributive adjunct \ ,. 7 . r 7 , j-l-7 

m _, , . ^ -^ u-ue qualified by adverbial 

of Subject 1 7 

( phrase. 



11 



I. Predicate 



132 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



III. Predicate 



1. Verb of incomplete predica- 

tion, f can.' 

2. Complement, ' oppose/ in- ] 

finitive. 



IV. Object, c army. s 

C 1. 'a.' 

V. Attributive adjuncts \ - . , _ . , , . , . 

■ ,.' ., ■< 2. < standing, adjective, restnc- 

ofobject I Uve. 



Note. — One way of parsing such verbs as c taught,' c eon. 
vinced,' &c, which take a double object, is to treat one of the 
objects as a completion of the verb. This is the only correct 
way when these verbs, as in No. 21, are used in the passive! 
voice. Another way of parsing them is explained in the 1 
Grammar, p. 78. 



24. In working well, if travail you sustain, 
Into the wind shall lightly pass the pain, 
But of the deed the glory shall remain. 

Compound Complex Contracted Sentence. — A + a -f 
-|- b. — [A] In working well if travail you sustain, into tb 
wind shall lightly pass the pain ; [B] in working well if tra\ 
vail you sustain, of the deed the glory shall remain. A anal 
B are opposed by the adversative arrestive conjunction 'but/ 

Analysis of A. 

I. Subject c pain.' 
II. Attributive adjunct of subject, c the.' 
III. Predicate, * shall pass.' 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 133 

1. 'lightly,' adverb of Manner. 

2. ' into the wind/ adverbial 
VI. Adverbial adjuncts of J phrase of place. 

Predicate \ 3. c in working well, if travail 

you sustain/ adv. clause of 
Cause (or Condition) (a). 

Analysis of (a). 
I. Subject, 'you.' 
III. Predicate, ' sustain.' 
IY. Object, ' travail.' 
YI. Adverbial adjunct of i 'in working well,' Adv. phrase of 



i 



r 1. 'the.' 

) 2. 'of the deed/ prepositional 

/ adjective phrase. 



Predicate \ Place (metaphorical) 

Analysis op B. 
I. Subject, 'glory.' 

II. Attributive adjuncts 
of Subject 

III. Predicate, ' shall remain.' 

^ T A , ,. 7 ,. , ('in working well, if travail you 
VI. Adverbial adjunct \ ° ' J 

* -r, t + \ sustain/ adv. clause of 

of Predicate \ J 

f Cause (b). 

Analysis of (6). . 

Same as analysis of (a). 

25. To prove my assertion we have but to observe what 
generally passes between the winner and the loser. 

Complex Sentence. — A -f a. 

I. Subject, ' we.' 

12 



134 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



III. Predicate 



VI. Adverbial adjunct 
of Predicate 



1. Verb of incomplete predication, 

6 ham' 

| 2. Complement, ' but to observe 
what generally &c.,' infinitive 
enlarged (1) by adverb ' but,' 
(2) by noun clause (a) as 
object. 

( to prove my assertion,' gerundial 
adverbial phrase of Cause 
(or purpose). 



Analysis of (a). 
I. Subject, * what.' 
III. Predicate, 'passes.' 



1* c generally,' adv. of Time. 



of Predicate 



sj 2. ' 



loser,' adv. phrase of Place 
(metaphorical). 



26. Go into Turkey, where the Pachas will tell you that 
the Turkish government is the most perfect in the world. 

Compound Sentence. — A -f- B + b. [A] Go into Turkey ; 
[B] there the Pachas will tell you that the Turkish, &c. A 
and B are united by the co-ordinating relative ' where/ equi- 
valent to ' and there.' 

Analysis of A. 

[I. Subject, e you,' understood.'] 
III. Predicate, 'go.' 

"VI. Adverbial adjunct ( 'into Turkey,' adv. phrase of 
of Predicate \ Place. 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 135 

Analysis of B. 

I. Subject, ' Pachas.' 
II. Attributive adjunct of Subject, c the.' 
III. Predicate, ' will tell.' 
IV Ob' t i ' ^ a ^ ^ e T^kisli government, 

I &c.,' noun clause (b). 

VI. Adverbial adjunct { * (to) you/ adv. phrase of Place 
of Predicate , \ (metaphorical). 

Otherwise, the noun clause may be regarded as the com- 
plement of ' tell/ and c you ' as the object. 

Analysis of (6). 
I. Subject, c government/ 
II. Attributive adjuncts ( 1. 'the/ 

of Subject \ 2. ' Turkish,' adj. restrictive. 

( 1. Verb of incomplete predication, 
'is.' 
2. Complement, c the most per- 
fect in the world,' adjective 
with adverb and adv. phrase 
of Degree. . 

27. All that he does is to distribute what others produce ; 
which is the least part of the business. 

Compound Sentence. — A + a x -f- a -f- B. [A] All that 
he does is to distribute what others produce ; [B] this is the 
least part of the business. A and B are united by the co- 
ordinating relative c which.' 

Analysis of A. 
I. Subject, e business ' (or some such word) understood. 



III. Predicate 



II. Attributive adjuncts j *• ' al V ^definite numeral. 

^iat he does,' adjec 
restrictive (a x ) 



of Subject J 2. c that he does,' adjective clause, 



136 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

1. Verb of incomplete predication 
'is.' 
III. Predicate J 2, Complement, c to distribute 

what others produce/ infini- 
tive, with noun clause (a 2 ) 
as object. 

Analysis of (a x ). 

I. Subject, 'he.' 

III. Predicate, 'does.' 

IV. Object, ' that/ restrictive relative. 

Analysis of (a ). 
I. Subject, ' others.' 

III. Predicate, * produce. ' 

IV. Object, ' what/ 

Analysis of B. 
Subject, ' which/ co-ordinating relative. 

'1. Verb of incomplete predica- 
tion, 'is.' 
III. Predicate <{ 2 Complement, ( the least part of 

the business/ noun with ad- 
juncts. 

28. And even while fashion's brightest arts decoy, 
The heart distrusting asks if this be joy. 

Complex Sentence. — A + a x + a 2 . 

I. Subject, ' heart.' 

( 1. c the.' 
II. Attributive adjuncts) % ( distrugtingj , co . ordinate 

of Subject £ participle. 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 137 

III. Predicate, asks.' 

IV. Object, c if this be joy/ noun clause (a 1 ). 

C c even while fashions' s brightest 

VI. Attributive adjunct j arts decoy/ adv. clause 

of Predicate J (a 2 ) of Time, qualified by 

f adv. of Degree e even.' 

. Analysis of (a x ). 

I. Subject, 'this.' 

C 1. Verb of incomplete predica- 
III. Predicate < tion, ' be.' 

/ 2. Complement, 'joy.' 

Analysis of (a 2 ). 
I. Subject, { arts.' 

C 1. ' fashion's/ possessive case. 
II. Attributive adjuncts \ •«,.,. ,», , . . . 

< 2. 'brightest, restrictive m 

/ superlative degree. 

III. Predicate, ' decoy.' 

VI. Attributive adjunct ) ' while/ acfoerfc o/ Time, 
o/ Predicate C 

29. Those poets who owe their best fame to his skill 
Shall still be his flatterers, go where he will. 

Complex Sentence. — A + ai + a^ . 

I. Subject, 'poets.' 



138 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 



II. Attributive adjuncts 



those,' demonstrative adj. 
* who owe their best fame to 



| clause (a ) (' who ' impro- 



of Predicate \ ^ ^' je^trictive adj- 



perly used for c that ') . 
1. Verb of incompletepredication, 
< shall.' 
III. Predicate <( 2. Complement, e be his flat- 

terers,' infinitive of incom- 
plete verb with complement 
r 1. ' still,' adv. of Time. 
VI. Attributive adjuncts J 2 . 'go where he will,' adv. clause 
of Predicate (_ of Place (a^). 



2 - 

Analysis of (c^ ). 



I. Subject, e who.' 

III. Predicate, c owe.' 

IV. Object, c fame.' 



C 1. c their,' possessive adj. 
?3 



V. ^ttribu^eadb'uficfei 2> c besV rMWj « vfl a***™ in 
of Object ^ superlative Degree. 

VI. Adverbial adjunct of I c to his skill,' adverbial phrase of 
Predicate \ Cause. 

Analysis of (a 2 ). 

I. Subject, t he.' 

/" 1. Verb of incomplete predica- 

III. Predicate 5 *i™> Cwill • , 

/ 2. Complement, c go,' infinitive. 

VI. Adverbial adjunct ■% 

o/ Predicate j ' where ' a£fee,-b 0/ * Zace - 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 



139 



30. The heart of man craves for sympathy, and each of us 
seeks a recognition of his talents and his labours. 

Compound Sentence.— A -J- B. [A] The heart of man 
craves for sympathy ; [B] each of us seeks a recognition of 
his talents and his labours. A and B are united by 'and.' 



Analysis of A. 



I. Subject, 'heart.' 



II. Attributive adjuncts 
of Subject 

III. Predicate, 'craves.' 

VI. Adverbial adjunct 

of Predicate 



1. 'the/ 

2. 'of man/ restrictive adj. 

phrase, 

'for sympathy/ adv. phrase of 
Cause. 



Analysis of B. 



I. Subject, ' man ' understood. 

/ 1. 'each/ distributive numeral 
adj. 
2. ' of us/ restrictive adj. 
phrase • 



II. Attributive adjuncts 
of Subject 



III. Predicate, 'seeks.' 
IT. Object, ' recognition. ' 

Y. Attributive adjuncts I 
of Object ) 



1. 'a.' 

2. ' of his talents and his 

labours/ restr. adj. phrase. 



Note. — 'Craves for' might be taken as a compound verb, 
with 'sympathy' as object. 'Of us' is formally restrictive, 
but not really so, ' men ' and ' us ' being in this case co- 
extensive. ' Of his talents and of his labours ' might be 
expanded so as to make of B a second compound sentence — 



140 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

1 Each of ns seeks a recognition of bis talents, and (each of 
us seeks a recognition of) his labours.' 



• their 



31. The Dutch florist that sells tulip bulbs for their weight 
in gold, laughs at the antiquary that pays a great price for a 
rusty lamp. 

Complex Sentence. — A + a ± -f- a 

I. Subject, 'florist.* 

/I. 'the.' 

12.' Dutch,' restrictive adj 

ll ' A T&arZ a ^ VMC ^S 3 " ' tMtsellstuli P b ' llb8for 

I weight in gold,' restrictive 

I adj. phrase (a ). 

III. Predicate, l laughs at, compound verb, 

IY. Object, 'antiquary.' 

{1. 'the/ 
2. « that pays a great price for 
a rusty lamp,' restrictive 
adj. phrase {a ). 

Analysis of (a ). 
I. Subject, ' that,' restrictive relative. 

III. Predicate, 'sells.' 

IV. Object, 'bulbs.' 

V. Attributive adjunct ~) 

of subject ) ' ta ^'' noun used as ad J ectiv ^ 

VI. Adverbial adjunct C ' for their weight in gold,' adv. 
of Predicate \ phrase of Cause. 

Analysis oy (a ). 
I. Subject, ' that,' restrictive relative. 

III. Predicate, 'pays.' 

IV. Object, ' price.' 






EXERCISE ON ANALYSTS. 



141 



V. Attributive adjuncts C 1. 'a.' 

of Object \ 2. e great/ restrictive adj. 

VI. Adverbial adjunct ( c for a rusty lamp,' adv. phrase 
of Predicate \ of Cause. 



II. Attributive adjuncts 
of Subject. 



32. Here Cumberland lies, having acted his parts, 
The Terence of England, the mender of hearts ; 
A flattering painter, who made it his care 
To draw men as they ought to be, not as they are. 

Complex Sentence. — A -\-a-{-aK-\-aa-\- a B + a &. 
Subject, ' Cumberland.' 

1. c having acted his parts,' co- 
ordinate participial phrase. 

2. 'the Terence of" England,' 
noun with adjuncts in appo- 
sition. 

3. c the mender of hearts,' noun 
with adjuncts in apposition. 

4. c a flattering painter who made 
it, &c.,' noun in apposition 
with an ' adj. clause [a) 
among its adjuncts. 

III. Predicate, c lies.' 
YI. Adverbial adjunct of Predicate, c here,' adv. of Place. 

Analysis oe (<z). 
Compound Contracted Complex Sentence. — [A] Who 
made it his care to draw men as they ought to be ; [B] (who 
made it) not (his care to draw men) as they are. 

Analysis of a A. 
I. Subject, c who.' 



142 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 



r 1. Verb of incomplete predica- 

III. Predicate / Hon, e made.' 

( 2. Complement, 'his care.' 

IV. Object,' it.' 

.*,.,„... . . f c to draw men as they ought to 

V. Infinitive m apposi- ) , , . _ .,. , ° _ , 

7 . , < be, infinitive enlarged (1) by 

tion to object ) . , v ' * 

V oty. (2) by adv. clause (aaj. 

Analysis op (a, a). 
I. Subject, e they.' 

£ 1. Ferfr o/ incomplete predica- 
III. Predicate \ tion, c ought.' 

^ 2. Complement, c to be.' 
VI. Adverbial adjunct of C 

Predicate i ' ™> *^erb of Manner. 

Analysis of a B. 
I. Subject, c who.' 

* 1. Ferfr of incomplete predication, 
III. Predicate ) c made not.' 

( 2. Complement, e his care/ 
IY. Object, < it.' 

f f to draw men as they are/ 
Y. Infinitive in apposi- J infinitive enlarged (1) by 

tion to object "\ object, (2) by adv. clause 

\ (abj. 

Analysis op a b. 
I. Subject, e they.' 
III. Predicate, 'are' (exist). 
VI. Adverbial adjunct of ( , ^ ^ of Manner , 

Predicate ' 

33. Nor second he that rode sublime 
Upon the seraph wings of ecstasy 
The secrets of the abyss to spy. 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 143 

Complex Sentence. — A 4- a, 

I. Subject, ' he.' 

II. Apposition adjunct of ( t ^ rode gublime up(m &c/ ^ 

Subject I 

( 1. Ferb o/ incomplete predica- 
III. Predicate < tion, 'was.' 

(_ 2. Complement, 'second.' 

Analysis of (a). 
I. Subject, 'that.' 

III. Predicate, 'rode.' 
' 1. ' sublime/ adj. used by poetical 

license as adv. of Place. 

2. 'upon the seraph wings of 

ecstasy,' adv. phrase of Place 
VI. Adverbial admnctsy , . , . ,, 

3. 'the secrets of the abyss to 
spy/ gerundial adv. phrase 
of Cause. 



of Predicate 



34. When civil dudgeon first grew high. 
And men fell out, they knew not why ; 
Then did Sir Knight abandon dwelling, 
And out he rode a-colonelling. 

Double Compound Sentence. — A -f- A 1 a -f- A + A a 
+ A, aa +B 1 +B 1 a + B a + B t a + B„a *-[Aj 

When civil dudgeon first grew high, then did Sir Knight abandon 
dwelling; [A ] when men fell out, they knew not why (then did 
Sir Knight abandon dwelling) ; [B 1 ] When civil dudgeon first 
grew high, (then) out he rode a-colonelling ; [B.J (When men 
fell out, they knew not why, then) out he rode a-colonelling. 



144 ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 

Analysis of A r 
I. Subject, c Sir Knight,' compound singular name. 

III. Predicate, ' did abandon.' 

IV. Object, < dwelling/ 

/ 1. 'then,' adverb of Time. 

VI. Adverbial adjunct J 2. when civil dudgeon first 
of Predicate ) grew high, adverbial clause 

( of Time (A x a). 

Analysis of A x a. 

I. Subject, e dudgeon.' 

Y. Attributive adjunct ( . . #1 , "... ,. ,. 

- , . , j c civil, restrictive adjective. 

{ 1. Ferb o/ incomplete predication, 
III. Predicate < ' grew.' 

t 2. Complement, 'high.' 
VI. Adverbial adjuncts ( 1. ' when,' adverb of Time, 
of Predicate 1 2. { first,' adverb of Time. 

Analysis of A 2 . 

I. Subject, c Sir Knight,' compound Singular name. 
II. Predicate, e did abandon. ' 
IY. Object, ' dwelling.' 



( 1 ' ' 

5) 2.' 



1. e then,' adverb of Time. 



VI. Adverbial adjuncts) 2. e when men fell out, they knew 
of Predicate \ not why,' adverbial clause of 

I Time (A 2 a). 

Analysis of A 2 a. 
I. Subject, e men.' 
III. Predicate, c fell out/ compound verb. 

C 1. 'when,' adverb of Time. 
VI. ^dircriial #«&; 2> <they knew not why> . acto . 

of Predicate ( clause of Manner (A, a) . 



EXERCISE ON ANALYSIS. 145 



Analysis of A 2 a a. 



I. Subject < they.' 

III. Predicate, 'knew not.' 

VI. Adverbial adjunct ( t , , T , . ,, 

„ „ , . < c why, adverb of Manner, 

of Predicate I J 

Analysis of B r 

I. Subject, 'he.' 

III. Predicate, e rode out,' compound verb. 

' 1. ' then, ac^y. 0/ Time. 

2. c when civil dudgeon first grew 

VI. Adverbial adjuncts) hi 2 h > adv ' clause °f Time 

of Predicate \ ( B i a ) 

3. 'a-colonelling,' adv. of Man- 
ner. 

B x a is identical with A a already analysed. 

Analysis of (B 2 ). 

I. Subject, i he.' 
III. Predicate, c rode out,' compound verb. 

' 1. e then,' adv. of Time. 
2, ' when men fell out, they knew 

VI. Adverbial adjuncts) not wh ^* adv ' dause °f 

of Predicate \ Time ( B 2 a )' 

3. a-colonelling,' adv. of Man- 
ner. 

B 2 a and B 2 a a are identical with A 2 a and A^ a a 
already analysed. 

Exercise 19— (p. 184). 

Errors in Syntax. 
I. Correct form. — c Their nature, tempers, qualities, actions, 
and way, of living were made up of innumerable contra- 
dictions.' 

13 



146 



SYNTAX. 



' Both ' applies only to two tilings : it cannot be applied, as 
here, to more than two. ' Was,' after a plural subject, is a 
breach of the first rule of Concord. — The sentence is from 
Defoe, whose grammar is often at fault. 

2. Correct form. — < Scotland and thou did in each other 
live.' 

' Thee ' is wrong : the subject of a verb should be in the 
Nominative case. 

3. Correct form. — c O thou for ever present in ray way, 

Who all my motives and my toils surveyed.' 
Correct grammar here mars the rhyme. ' Survey ' should 
be ' surveyest : ' the rule being that the relative takes the 

* person ' of the antecedent. 

4. Correct form. — c I had written to him the day before.' 

' Wrote' should be 'written 7 (Gram. p. 180). It is the 
perfect participle, and not the inflected form for the past 
tense, that is used in making up the past perfect. 

5. Correct form. — e The reason of his attending their 
meetings was simply that he wished to obstruct them. 5 

'Him' should be 'his.' 'Him' is here an infringement of 
the second rule of government (Gram. p. 181) : ' attending' 
is an infinitive, not a participle. ' Were ' should be ' was,' 
after a singular subject—' reason.' ' Wishes ' should be 

* wished,' according to the rule for the Concord of Tenses : the 
principal tense 'was' being past, the subordinate tense 
' wished ' must be past also. 

6. Correct form. — 'The rise and fall of nations is an 
interesting study.' 






ERRORS IN SYNTAX. 147 

e Are ' should be ' is : ' c rise ' and c fall ' are two nouns 
united by c and/ but they make a single compound subject by 
their union. 

7. Correct form. — e Great pains was taken to avoid such a 
calamity.' 

' Were ' should be e was : ' c pains ' is plural in form, but it 
is a singular noun, and must be followed by a singular verb. 
' To have avoided/ should be to c avoid : ' the perfect infini- 
tive (Gram, p. 180) should not be used after a past tense. 

8. Correct form. — c The mind and the body remain in- 
vincible.' 

1 The ' should be repeated before e body/ f mind ' and ■ body ' 
being two different subjects (Gram. p. 182). For the same 
reason c remains ' should be c remain.' 

9. Correct form. — ' The fact of my going away could not 
signify.' 

Cp No. 5. — c Going away ' is an infinitive, and should not 
be preceded by an objective. A possessive adjective serves 
the same purpose as the possessive case of a pronoun. 

10. Correct form. — e Nor want nor cold his course delays.' 
The conjunction being alternative, and { want ' and ■ cold ' 

both singular, the verb must be singular. 

11. Correct form. — c She fell a-laughing, like one out of her 
right senses; ' or, more politely, 'out of one's right senses.' 

Many good writers use c their ' after a singular indefinite 
pronoun, but here the incongruity of number is too glaring. 
To the possessive adjective { her' it may be objected that the 
gender of c one/ which the adjective is in concord with, is not 
necessarily feminine : she laughed like any person, man or 



148 SYNTAX. 

woman out of his or her right senses. Perhaps c one's 5 is 
the safest word to use, though it is a little stiff. 

12. Correct form. — ' There is a class of men that never look 
before their noses.' 

1 Are ' should probably be c is : ' the collective noun e class ' 
being here used for an aggregate, or body of individuals taken 
all together. ' Looks ' should be ' look ; ' the antecedent of 
the relative being f men,' not c class,' and the rule being that 
the antecedent regulates the number of the relative. 

' Who,' the relative of co-ordination, is here out of place. 
The clause is restrictive, and the relative should be ( that,' 

13. Correct form. — e I, your friend, advise you not to trust 
any of the three partners.' 

1 Advises ' should be f advise ' : c I,' not c friend,' is the sub- 
ject of the verb. ' Your friend/ is an abbreviated co-ordinate 
clause, equivalent to f who am your friend.' c Either ' is one 
of two, not one of three : e any ' is the proper adjective when 
there are more than two. 

14. Correct form. — 'Between you and me, there were 
various causes at work.' 

* I ' should be in the objective case, after the proposition 
' between.' ' Variety ' being used with the indefinite article, 
' a ' is grammatically singular, and ' was ' is formally correct. 
But the sense is plural, and demands a plural verb. The best 
course in such cases is to avoid the awkward construction, and 
use an equivalent expression. 

15. Correct form.- c The only real hindrance to its being 
attainable, is the wonderfully imprudent character of the 
people. ' 



ERRORS IN SYNTAX. 149 

Cp. 5, 9. c Being attainable ' is an infinitive, and should 
be preceded by the possessive c its.' c Wonderful ' is an ad- 
jective improperly used for an adverb. 

16. Correct form. — ' Though four-fif bhs of the population are 
Celtic and Roman Catholic, more than four-fifths of the pro- 
perty belongs to Protestants/ 

c Is ' should be f are/ The abstract noun f four-fifths ' in 
the first clause is used as a collective noun distributively ; so 
many of the population are spoken of individually as regards 
their religious beliefs. e Belong ' should be * belongs.' ' Four- 
fifths ' in the second clause is used as a collective noun of 
heterogeneous material (see above, Exercise 6, No. 4, p. 22), 
and requires a singular verb. These abstract expressions for 
fractions take on the character of the noun that they are used 
with : the number of the verb, as a rule, is regulated by the 
number of that noun. 

17. Correct form. — ' No other river such fine salmon feeds.' 
s Feed ' should be c feeds.' This is an example of the ear 

being perverted by an intervening prominent noun of different 
number (Gram. p. 177). 

18. Correct form. — e The books were laid upon the table.' 

e Lain ' should be ' laid.' ' Lain ' is the perfect participle 
of the intransitive verb e lie, ' not of the transitive verb ' lay.' 
The conjugation of * lie ' is ' lie, lay, lain ; ' of ' lay ' — e lay, 
laid, laid.' 

19. Correct form. — 'He is one of the best and wisest men 
that have ever lived.' 

1 Has ever lived ' is wrong : the antecedent of the relative is 
the plural { men,' not the singular ' one.' 



150 SYNTAX. 

' Who ' is not the proper relative : the clause is restrictive, 
and should be introduced by ' that/ 

20. Correct form. — c He trusted to equal the Most High.' 

Cp. 7. It is incorrect to use the perfect infinitive after a 
past tense. 

21. Correct form. — 'Every tub must stand upon its own 
bottom./ 

' Their ' is wrong : c every tub ' is singular (Gram. p. 179). 

22. Correct form. — c That is the man that I perceived to be 
in fault.' 

' Was ' must be made ' to be : ' it is the function of the in- 
finitive to name an action in the manner of a noun : the third 
person singular of a tense cannot stand as the object of a verb. 
' Being in fault,' the state expressed by this complex verb, 
either is the object of ' perceived ' — ' that,' the secondary object, 
being considered equivalent to ' in the case of whom,' and so 
equivalent to an adverbial phrase : or it may be regarded as 
the completion of ' perceived.' (See above, p. 32). 

The clause being restrictive, ' that ' is preferable to ' whom.' 

23. Correct form.—' You are the first to rear your head.' 
We can see from the meaning and from the use of ' your ' in 

the relative clause that the antecedent intended is 'you.' 
This, however, is awkward, as we naturally refer the relative 
to ' the first (person) .' c The first to rear your head ' is the 
idiomatic construction. The infinitive e to rear ' is explained 
by supposing the omission of a preposition, such as ' as re- 
gards : ' ' you are the first as regards rearing (to rear) your 
head.' 



ERRORS IN SYNTAX. 151 

24. Correct form. — 'His Elements of Political Economy 
was very favourably reviewed.' 

* Were " is wrong : s Elements of Political Economy,' 
though the leading noun is plural, is a singular name, being 
the title of a book, and requires a singular verb (Gram. p. 
178). 

25. Correct form. — c The play is most perniciously slow.' 
Cp. 15. 

26. Correct form. — e The tenantry have resolved to celebrate 
the marriage of their young proprietor with all the honours.' 

The tenants, though coming to the resolution collectively, 
are supposed to act individually, and therefore ' tenantry ' is 
followed by a plural noun. To avoid the clash of a nomina- 
tive singular in form and a verb plural in form, many writers 
would prefer using the plural of the class noun c tenants.' 

27. Correct form.— 'All the human race would fain be 
wits j ' or £ All men would fain be wits.' 

It is not idiomatic to use ' all ' alone with a collective noun : 
we must put in c the.' 

The second form is perhaps preferable for the same reason 
that would make us write c tenants ' in place of ' tenantry ' in 
No. 26. There is a collision in form between the singular 
' race ' and the plural c wits ' applying to the same subject. 

28. Correct form. — 'Each makes as much profit as he can.' 

' Make ' is decidedly wrong : c each ' is singular and requires 
a singular verb. ' They,' however, might stand, did it not 
come so soon and so prominently after the singular verb. 
Many good writers use a plural pronoun to refer to l each ' for 



152 



SYNTAX. 



the reason given in Grammar, p. 179 : c each ■ is common gen- 
der, and there is no corresponding singular pronoun of common 
gender. 

29. Correct form.— < Sir William Temple had a good shape, 
and was extremely active.' 

' Extreme,' misused for extremely. Cp. Nos. 15, 25. 

30. Correct form. — e His honourable and amiable disposition 
was praised by everybody.' 

This is an example of the misleading effect of the two adjec- 
tives coupled by ' and ' upon the number of the verb. 

31. Correct form,. — ' Shattered by the fever, he was left by 
his friends to his fate.' 

A participial phrase standing at the beginning of the sent- 
ence applies to the subject (Gram. p. 160) : and it being c he' 
and not c his friends ' that are meant to have been shattered, we 
must alter the sentence so as to make c he' the subject. An- 
other way of correcting the bad grammar, would be to insert 
f as he was,' thus — e Shattered as he was by the fever, his 
friends &c.' 

32. Correct form. — 'I am afraid of the man's dying before 
a doctor can come.' 

The possessive c man's ' is required before the infinitive 
1 dying.' Cp. No. 15. 

33. Correct form. — c It was very characteristic of Bacon to 
say that by indignities men come to dignities.' 

c Came ' is wrong : Bacon did not mean the expression to 
apply only to his own time, and the present indefinite (Gram. 
p. 146) is the tense for propositions applicable to all time. 



ERRORS IN SYNTAX. 153 

As another example of this kind of error, reference may be 
made to Exercise 10, 21 (p. 53) — i the loud laugh that spoke 
the vacant mind.' ' Spoke ' should be f speaks : ' the writer 
did not mean that this sort of laughter was in his time a 
thing of the past : he intended a proposition true of all times, 
and should have used the indefinite universal tense. 

34. Correct form.— c I£ we could ^>nlj hold our tongues, 
everything would succeed to perfection.' 

Either ' could ' or c will ' must be changed, to preserve con- 
cord between the principal and the subordinate clauses. 
c To a wish,' though significant enough, is a Scotch idiom. 

35. Correct form. — { He has not sufficient wages to support 
a growing family.' 

c Wages,' though plural in form, is singular in meaning, and 
should in strictness be followed by a singular verb. At the 
same time, a noun of plural form coming immediately before a 
verb of singular form, has a very awkward sound. The best 
course is to evade the construction by some such alternative 
as the above. 

36. Correct form. — c Have you seen the minister and the 
schoolmaster to-day.' 

1 The minister and schoolmaster ' is allowable only if both 
the offices are held by the same man, and the two nouns apply 
to the same person. If two different persons are denoted, the 
article must be repeated (Gram. p. 182). 

1 The day' is a Scotticism for 'to-day.' 

37. Correct form. — 'The bliss that centres only in the 
mind.' 

The relative clause being restrictive, c that ' is preferable to 
' which.' ' The ' may be substituted for l that ' to avoid the 



154 SYNTAX. 

recurrence of that. c Only,' in the original form is misplaced. 
When put between e which ' and { centres,' it naturally is taken 
to qualify either the one or the other. If it qualifies c which,' 
the meaning is — c the only bliss that centres in the mind,' 
implying that there is but one bliss that does so centre. If 
it qualifies 'centres,' the meaning is — 'the bliss that only 
centres,' and does nothing else that it might 1 be> expected 
to do. But we know that neither of these meanings is the 
meaning intended by the poet (Goldsmith, Traveller), 
He means the bliss that is not to be found in one country more 
than in another, ' the bliss that centres only in the mind.' 
Yain, very vain, my weaiy search to find 
The bliss that centres only in the mind. 

38. Correct form. — ' We should make a great- mistake if 
we supposed wealth and rank exempt from care and toil.' 

' We would ' is a wrong inflection : ' we should ' is the pro- 
per inflection for conditional futurity. The inflection of the 
plural is ' We should, you would, they would.' ' Be mistaken,' 
in this sense, is a bad idiom : we must use another construc- 
tion. ' Suppose ' does not concord with the past tense in the 
principal clause. 

39. Correct form. — c Hoping to hear from you soon, I am, 
believe me, yours truly.' 

Cp. No. 31. The participial clause intended to apply to the 
writer, would apply to the person addressed, the subject of 
the principal verb 'believe.' We must contrive a sentence 
that shall have c I ' as its subject. 

40. Correct /orm.— c He was a plague to his parents at 
home, and the master could make almost nothing of him at 
school.' 



ERRORS IN SYNTAX. 155 

The introductory participial phrase would apply to the 
master, the subject of the sentence, not to the boy. The 
neatest way out of the difficulty is to make the co-ordinate 
phrase a separate sentence. 'Almost' is misplaced, being 
put so as to qualify ' make,' instead of ' nothing.' 

41. According to the rule laid down under No. 16, this 
form is correct. The nouns c miseries ' and ' vices ' being 
plural, the fraction is also considered plural. Had e misery ' 
stood alone — 'nine-tenths of the misery of mankind,' then 
' nine-tenths ' would have been regarded as singular, and the 
verb would have been * proceeds.' Were c misery and vice ' 
used — c nine-tenths of the misery and vice/ then, to carry out 
our rule strictly, we should have to consider ' nine -tenth s ' 
plural, e misery and vice ' together being a plural combina- 
tion : but in such a case probably the ear is better satisfied 
with a singular verb. 

42. Correct form. — f He complained that he had been suf- 
fered to use the horse only for one day,' or c for one day only.' 

The pronoun ' he ' refers to two different persons, and 
thereby causes unnecessary confusion (Gram. p. 183). We 
must make a construction, such as the above, that shall con- 
vey the same meaning without intricacy. ' Only ' is mis- 
placed : it is intended to qualify, not ' to use,' but ' for one 
day.' 

43. See above, p. 41, Adjective, Q. 11. 

44. 45, 46. Correct forms. — e He endeavoured not only to 
do his duty, but to make others do theirs.' 

' Some persons can distinguish only black, white, and gray.' 
c This seems to be owing not so much to the want of physi- 
cal power, but rather to the absence of vehemence.' 



156 SYNTAX. 

See Gram. p. 183. When a verb applies to two clauses, it 
should not be entangled with any part of the first. 

47. Correct form. — c The attempt may succeed in this case, 
but it cannot often be made with safety.' 

Cp. No. 42. c It' has here no less than three different 
references. The first c it ' refers forward to the clause—' that 
it is safe to make it ; ' the second c it y refers forward to the 
phrase — c to make it ; ' and the third refers back to the word 
' attempt.' Such perplexity of reference in the same sentence 
should be avoided by using another construction. 'It' is 
employed for so many different references that we may not 
always be able to find a substitute : but we should always try. 






ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

PARSING FOR SYNTAX. 

When Ms classes are asked to parse for Syntax alone, the 
teacher should be careful to prevent them from parsing with 
a view to the other divisions of grammar — Parts of Speech, 
Inflection, or Analysis. So far, indeed, parsing for Syntax pre- 
supposes parsing for Parts of Speech and for Inflection. 
Concord in Syntax means concord or agreement of in- 
flections for number, person, and tense ; Government in 
Syntax means the regulation of the inflection for case : 
before, therefore, we can parse for Concord or for Go- 
vernment in Syntax, we must have distiDguished or 'parsed' 
the inflections for number, person, tense, and case. Again, 
the Order of Words in Syntax, means the Order of the Parts 
of Speech according to what they are — Nouns, Pronouns, 
Verbs, Adjectives, or Adverbs : before we can say whether or 
not the rules for the Order of Words have been observed, we 
must know what Parts of Speech the several words belong to. 
But in parsing for Concord we take no notice of inflections 
that are not in concord with other inflections : in parsing for 
Government, we attend only to Cases and to how they are 
produced : and in parsing for Order of Words it is enough to 
know merely the Part of Speech without paying attention to 
the sub -division. 

14 



158 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES 

1. 'My lambkins around me would oftentimes play.' 
(Exercise 17, 14 : p. 152). 

Concord. — Lamhhins would play— a plural subject followed 
by a plural verb (Concord, 2). In this tense the verb bas tbe 
same inflection for tbe first and tbird persons singular, and 
for tbe tbree persons of tbe plural. Still tbe verb may be 
said to be in concord witb its subject : tbe same inflection is 
used for otber persons and tbe otber number, but a different 
inflection would be inadmissible. 

Tbere is no fartber concord or agreement of inflection in tbe 
sentence. 

Government. — 'Me' is governed in tbe objective case by 
tbe preposition c around' (Government, 1). 

Order of Words. — In parsing for Order it is well to begin 
witb a general statement as to wbetber tbe order is regular or 
irregular upon tbe wbole. If tbere is any irregularity, it 
sbould be noticed first; and tbougb, in a set exercise, tbe 
pupils sbould notice conformity as well as non- conformity 
witb tbe rules, it may be sufficient, in burried parsing, to 
notice only tbe irregularities. 

In tbis sentence tbe adverbial pbrase c around me ' is not 
placed according to tbe general rule. According to tbat rule 
it sbould come after, not before. It is bere put before on ac- 
count of tbe metre. Departures from tbe usual order are often 
made for tbe sake of empbasis ; but bere it is tbe metre alone 
tbat rules tbe order : c would oftentimes play around me' is 
no less empbatic tban — 'around me would oftentimes play.' 

6 Oftentimes ' is regularly placed between tbe auxiliary and 
tbe verb. Tbe adjective c my' regularly precedes its noun 
* lambkins.' 

In tbis tbe first example of parsing for Syntax, tbe teacber 
sbould repeat and enforce minutely tbe difference between 



PARSING FOE, SYNTAX. 159 

parsing for Syntax and parsing for Parts of Speech and for 
Inflection (parsing for Analysis is a process so markedly dif- 
ferent that there is no risk of confounding it with any of the 
other modes). In parsing for Parts of Speech we should 
have to say what class of Adjectives c my ' belong to ; what 
class of Nouns ' lambkins ' belongs to ; what class of Prepo- 
sitions c around ' belongs to; what class of Pronouns 'me' 
belongs to ; what classes of Adverbs the phrase c around me ' 
and the word c oftentimes ' belong to ; what classes of Verbs 
e would ' and c play ' belong to. In parsing for Inflection we 
should have to give the tense and the mood of • would/ and 
the mood of ' play.' 

The teacher may even make his classes actually parse the 
sentence for Parts of Speech and for Inflection ; repeating the 
process on other sentences till he has fulfilled the no doubt 
difficult task, of making the pupils understand the distinction. 

2. c But anxious cares the pensive nymph oppressed' (Exer. 
1, 8, p. 72). 

Concord. — The inflection of the subject c cares ' corresponds 
with the inflection of the verb f oppressed.'. The two inflections 
are, as explained in No. 1, in concord. It may be well, how- 
ever, as a means of keeping the pupil's attention awake, to make 
him remark the concord only when the verb as well as the 
subject has a distinctive inflection for number or person. This 
happens in the second and the third persons singular of the 
Present tense, and in the second person singular of the Past 
tense, Indicative Mood : there is no distinctive inflection 
either for number or for person in the Subjunctive Mood. The 
pupil may remark upon the Concord only in those three 
persons : when the verb is in the first person singular or in 
any of the three persons of the plural, there is in one sense 



160 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES, 

no concord of inflections, the verb not being distinctively- 
inflected, Where the verb is not distinctively inflected, the 
pupil should either enter under the head of Concord — ' No 
instance ; ' Or if he does remark upon the Concord, he should 
point out clearly that the inflection of the verb is not distinc- 
tive either for the number or for the person. 

Government. — No instance. 

Order of Words. — The only irregularity consists in placing 
the object with its adjuncts — c the pensive nymph* — before 
the verb. The regular order is departed from for the sake of 
metre and rhyme. 

The adjectives c anxious ' and ' pensive ' regularly precede 
their nouns. The definite article c the ' comes before the other 
adjective. 

3. c I have a strange infirmity, which is nothing to those that 
know me' (Exer. 7, 31, p. 55). 

Concord. — In ' I have ' and ' that know,' the verbs are not 
distinctively inflected for number or person. In ' which is ' 
and c that know,' the subjects are not distinctively inflected 
for number : the pronouns * which ' and l that ' have the same 
form whether singular or plural in their reference. There is, 
therefore, in this sentence no decided case of concordant 
inflections: no case where we can tell the number of both 
subject and verb from looking at each separately without 
looking at the other. 

The number of c which ' and c that ' is determined by their 
antecedents — 'infirmity' and 'persons' understood — according 
to the rule (Concord, 7). 

The demonstrative adjective f those ' is inflected for number 
to agree with its noun — * persons/ or some such word, under- 
stood. 



PARSING FOR SYNTAX. 161 

The tenses c is,' { have/ and c know,' are in Concord. 

Government. — The pronoun c nae ' is governed in the ob- 
jective case by the verb * know.' 

Order of Words. — The order is regular. The adjective 
c strange ' precedes its noun ' infirmity : ' the adjective clauses 
follow their nouns, which is the invariable arrangement. 

4. f Soon will the high midsummer pomps come on ' (Exer. 
10, 19 ; p. 72). 

Concord. — No instance. 

Government. — No instance. 

Order of Words. — The order is irregular. 

The subject with its adjuncts — c the high midsummer 
pomps,' is placed between the auxiliary and the verb : where- 
as, according to the rule that the Subject precedes the Yerb, 
it should come before the auxiliary. The adverb c soon,' which 
in regular order follows an intransitive verb, is placed at the 
very beginning of the sentence. The regular order would be — 
{ The high midsummer pomps will come on soon.' This is de- 
parted from for the sake of metre. 

5. e "Whether he stops or goes, is to me a matter of indiffer- 
ence 5 (Exer. 13, 22; p. 109). 

Concord. — The inflection of the subject f he' for number 
and person corresponds to the inflection of the verbs c stays ' 
and c goes ' for number and person. The clause c whether he 
stays or goes ' — the subject of the sentence, being regarded as 
a singular noun, takes the third person singular of the verb to 
correspond. 

Government. — e Me ' is governed in the objective case by the 
preposition c to.' 

Order of words. — The order, though it does not depart from 
the primary rules, is not quite usual. The adverbial phrase 



162 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

' to me ' is placed between the substantive verb and its com- 
plement : the more usual arrangement would be to place it 
after the complement, though this arrangement has the ad- 
vantage of making the application of the adverbial phrase 
emphatic and unmistakable. It is also more common, though 
not for any special reason preferable, to begin such a sentence 
as this with the pronoun c it,' and to bring in the noun clause, 
which is the real subject, at the end in apposition to ' it/ thus 
— 'It is a matter of indifference to me whether he goes or 



6. ' Unless you study, you will not become learned ' (Exer. 
14,4; p. 110.) 

Concord. — The tenses 'study* and 'will* are in concord. 
" Would not become/ would be out of concord. 

Government. — No instance. 

Order of words. — According to the rule that the adverb 
follows the Yerb, the adverbial clause should follow the 
principal clause — ' You will not become learned, unless you 
study.' Both arrangements are quite common. When the 
adverbial adjunct is brought in before the principal verb, the 
structure is said to be ' periodic ' : when it is brought in after 
the principal verb, the structure is said to be ' loose.' 

7. But how can he expect that others should 
Build for him, sow for him, and at his call 
Love him, who for himself will take no heed at all. 
(Exer. 15,3; p. 129). 

Concord. — No instance of the concord of distinctive inflec- 
tions in subject and verb. 

The singular number and third person of the relative ■ who ' 
are determined by the antecedent ' he.' 

The tenses ' expect ' and « will ' are in Concord. 



ii. 



PARSING FOE- SYNTAX. 163 

Government — 'Build for him,' ' sow for him,' 'for him- 
self ; ' objectives governed by prepositions. ■ Love him/ ob- 
jective governed by ' love.' 

Order of Words. — For the sake of metre, there are a good 
many departures from the regular order. The relative clause 
'who for himself will take no heed at all,' is farther sepa- 
rated from the antecedent ■ he ' than is permissible in prose 
style. The adverbial phrase 'at his call/ if intended to 
qualify all the three predicates c build for him/ ' sow for him/ 
and 'love him/ should be placed before the first of them to 
make its application unmistakable. If intended to qualify 
' love him ' alone, it is properly placed for the purpose of pre- 
venting confusion, but is not placed in accordance with the 
general rule that in the case of a transitive verb, the adverb 
follows the object. According to rule, 'for himself should 
come after ' at all ; ' and in this position it would also be best 
placed for emphasis : it stands where it is for the sake of 
metre. 

It may here be remarked that there is no grammatical error 
in departing from the general rules for order. In parsing, 
however, the pupil should be trained to know what the rules 
are, that he may know not to depart from them without 
reason. The principles of effective order belong rather to 
Rhetoric or Composition than to Grammar : but even at this 
stage, in noting departures from the general rules, the pupils 
may be gradually and easily made familiar with some of the 
most important of those principles. The departures that be- 
ginners will most readily understand, are departures made for 
the sake of metre : departures for emphasis and clearness they 
cannot be expected to understand so readily. 



164 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

GENERAL PARSING. 

One of the chief objections commonly urged against the 
teaching of grammar to young children is, that almost in- 
variably parsing becomes a matter of rote ; that the pupil 
simply learns to repeat certain forms without attaching any 
meaning to them, and obtains no intellectual discipline from 
the exercise. The only way to prevent this is to vary the 
forms of parsing, and to introduce distinctions that cannot be 
caught without some effort of thought. It requires very little 
thought to see the difference between a noun and an adjective, 
or between a noun and a verb. If grammatical discipline is 
to teach pupils to think and not merely to repeat, we must in- 
troduce nicer distinctions : we must ask them to distinguish 
classes of Nouns, Yerbs, Adjectives, and other Parts of 
Speech. If it be thought that these distinctions are beyond 
children, then we must put off the age for beginning gram- 
mar, until children are capable of understanding and making 
these nicer distinctions ; teaching them to repeat grammatical 
rules does no more to quicken their intellects than teaching 
them to repeat nursery rhymes. While children are not old 
enough to understand the differences between an Abstract 
noun and a General noun, between an Indefinite infinitive and 
a Gerundial infinitive, or between parsing for Parts of Speech 
and parsing for Inflection, they would perhaps be better em- 
ployed in committing to memory choice passages of English 
composition, than in repeating and applying superficial gram- 
matical rules. 

One way of ensuring some thought in the exercise of 
parsing is to parse for each of the four divisions of Grammar 
— Parts of Speech, Inflection, Analysis, and Syntax — in 
separation. The teacher may now and then vary this, and 




GENERAL PAUSING. 165 

take two or three or all of them at the same time. It will 
stimulate the ingenuity of the apter pupils to the utmost, to 
make them sometimes parse for Parts of Speech and Inflection 
alone, sometimes for Parts of Speech and Analysis alone, 
sometimes for Syntax and Inflection alone, and so on through 
the other possible combinations. This thorough method of 
parsing will take longer time than the method commonly 
practised : but it is much more likely to be of service in 
awakening the mind, a more important end in education than 
mere rapidity of glib repetition. 

1. 

' Laughing to one's self is unpolite in company.' 

For Farts of Speech alone. — In this parsing we do not 
confine ourselves to taking the words singly : we take them in 
phrases, or combinations, when these play the same part as a 
single word. 

1 Laughing,' verb, intransitive. 

' To,' preposition of place, motion with direction (one of the 
case-prepositions). Its primary meaning of s motion towards ' 
can here be easily traced. 

' One's,' pronoun, indefinite demonstrative or indefinite 
personal (see above, p. 30). Here it is a polite substitute for 
e your,' helping to give a piece of advice with a less offensive 
air. 

1 Self,' noun, abstract. 

c One's self,' compound pronoun, reflective ; used with the 
preposition c to,' in the phrase 'to one's self.' 

1 To one's self,' adverbial phrase, primarily of place, here 
merely of manner. 

( Is,' verb of incomplete predication. 

'Unpolite/ adjective, quality, complement of 'is.' 



1 66 ADDITIONAL EXEEC1SES. 






' In,' preposition, place, rest in. 

c Company/ noun, usually collective, here employed by a 
peculiar idiom as an abstract noun ; used with the prep. f in/ 
in the phrase e in company.' 

c In company,' adverbial phrase of place, rest in. 

For Inflection alone. — The inflected words are l laughing,' 
one's,' and c is.' 

( Laughing,' infinitive indefinite. We know that it is not a 
participle because it is the subject of the sentence : we know 
that it is not a verbal noun because it is qualified by an adver- 
bial phrase : we know that it is not a gerundial infinitive 
because it does not express a purpose. 

c One's,' possessive case. 

' Is,' indicative mood, present tense, singular number, third 
person. [The order is here on purpose inverted from the 
order followed in Exercise 17 : such changes are a preventive 
against repetition by rote. The 'voice' is not mentioned, 
the verb having but one voice. Similarly, 'indefinite' is 
omitted, the present tense having but one form.] 

For Analysis alone. 

I. Subject, 'laughing to one's self,' infinitive with adver- 
bial qualification. 

C 1. Verb of incomplete predica- 
III. Predicate i tion, c is.' 

^ 2. Complement, 'unpolite,' adj. 

VI. Adverbial adjunct \ ^company,' adverbial phrase. 
of Predicate ) 

In parsing for analysis a passage that is not separately 
parsed for Parts of Speech also, it is well to make the pupils 
refer phrases, adjectives, and adverbs to their sub- divisions. 



GENERAL PARSING. 167 

This, however, is to some extent trenching upon parsing for 
Parts of Speech ; and is unnecessary and even incorrect when 
the parsing is for Analysis alone as distinguished from parsing 
for Parts of Speech alone. 

For Syntax alone, Concord. — There is here no instance of 
distinctive inflections in concord. ' Laughing,' the subject, 
being an infinitive, is not inflected for number. 

Government. — ' One's ' is governed in the possessive case 
by the noun ' self.' 

Order of words. — The order is regular. The adverbial 
phrases * one's self and c in company ' follow their verbs. 

As the phrase c in company ' stands, it qualifies c is unpolite.' 
But the meaning would be brought out more distinctly if it 
were made to qualify the subject e laughing to one's self.' In 
that view the correct order would be — c Laughing to one's self 
in company is unpolite.' 

2. 

'What Art does for men, Nature has done for animals, 
which are themselves incapable of art.' (Exer. 7, 23 ; p. 36.) 

For Farts of Speech and Inflection together. — f What.' We 
may here take ' what ' either as a compound relative equivalent 
to ' that which,' or (see Gram. p. 162) as an interrogative used 
indefinitely. If we take it as a compound relative, then we 
must regard the implied c that ' as the object of c has done,' 
1 which,' the other part of ' what,' being the object c does.' If 
we take it as an interrogative, we must regard the whole 
clause c what art does for men ' as a noun clause, object of ' has 
done.' 

* Art,' noun, usually Abstract ; here personified, and so 
Singular or Proper ; used as subject of a sentence. It is 
significant. Cp. ' Chaos' and c Night,' Exer. 5, 7 ; p. 20. 



168 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

' Does ' verb, transitive (object — c wbat ' or c which ' accord- 
ing to the view taken of c what ') active voice, indicative mood, 
present indefinite tense, singular number, third person. An 
example of the present indefinite used as the Universal tense. 

' For,' preposition of end, one of the case-prepositions, here 
used in its meaning of c benefit.' 

' Men/ noun, general and significant, plural number ; here 
ased with a preposition is the phrase c for men.' 

c For men,' adverbial phrase of cause. 

c Nature,' parsed exactly like ' Art.' 

'Has,' auxiliary verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
singular number, third person : used with c done ' to make up 
the present perfect tense of the verb ( do.' 

'Done/ verb, transitive (object — e that' or c what art does 
for men' according to the view taken of 'what'), perfect 
participle used with ' has ' to make up the third person 
singular present perfect indicative active of the verb ' do/ 

' Animals/ noun, general and significant, plural number ; 
here used with a preposition in the phrase 'for animals.' 
' Animals ' is a higher class than ' men/ comprehending 
mammals, birds, fishes, insects, &c, as well as ' men.' [Ani- 
mals is sometimes incorrectly used for the lower animals, that 
is, for all animals except men, and this would seem to be the 
meaning intended in the text]. 

' For animals/ adverbial phrase of cause. 

' Which/ pronoun, relative (referring to ' animals '), co- 
ordinating. [Unless ' animals ' is used in the restricted sense 
above mentioned, ' which ' is not here the proper relative. 
If ' animals ' is used in its wide and correct sense, the relative 
clause is intended to restrict the class to all animals except 
men, and should be introduced by the restrictive relative — 
'that']. 



GENEKAL PAUSING. 169 

1 Themselves/ pronoun, demonstrative, reflective, plural 
number. 

'Incapable,' adjective of quality, complement of 'are.' 

' Of/ preposition of reference (one of the case-preposi- 
tions). This is evidently an instance of the reference mean- 
ing of ' of : ' the idea is — 'incapable as regards art.' 

' Art/ noun, abstract, used with a preposition in tbe phrase 
' of art.' In this connection it is not personified. 

' Of art/ adverbial phrase of manner (reference) . 

1 Which are themselves incapable of art/ adjective clause, 
co-ordinate or restrictive, according to the view taken of the 
meaning of ' animals.' 

For Analysis. — A -\- a -\- a^. 

I. Subject, 'Nature.' 

III. Predicate, 'has done.' 

IV. Object, 'what art does for men/ noun clause (a Y ). 

( ' for animals which are, &c.' ad- 
VI. Adverbial adjuncts \ -, . 7 7 . . . 

J < verbial phrase containing 

of Predicate £ adjective clause (a, ) . 

Analysis of a ± . 
I. Subject, ' art.' 

III. Predicate, ' does. ' 

IV. Object, ' what.' 

VI. Adverbial adjunct of ( , * , , 7 . 7 7 

J J < c for men, adverbial phrase. 

Predicate v. 

Analysis of <x 2 . 

I. Subject, 'which.' 

II. Adjunct of Subject I 'themselves/ reflective pronoun 
' in apposition. 

15 



170 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

( 1. Verb of incomplete predica- 
III. Predicate 1 tion, ' are/ 

/ 2. Complement^ ' incapable.' 

VI. Adverbial adjunct of C (af ^ )atolW8 , ^ 
Predicate (. 

For Syntax. Concord. — In Art does } and Nature has done, 
we have instances of singular inflections in concord. 

The relative c which ' takes its number from the antecedent 
'animals.' 

The tenses c does, ' c has done,' and ' are/ are in concord. 

Government. — No instance. 

Order of Words. — The only departure from the general 
rule is in the position of the object noun clause ' what Art does 
for men.' The object usually follows the verb; here it is 
placed before the verb. 

The normal order would be — e Nature has done for animals 
which are themselves incapable of art, what art does for men.' 
The order in the text is adopted for emphasis : greater atten- 
tion is drawn to the object clause when it is placed at the 
beginning out of the usual order. 

The adjective clause e which are ' &c, is well placed for the 
purpose of making unmistakable the reference of ' which ' to 
its antecedent. 



' It is hard to say in what department of human thought and 
endeavour conformity has triumphed most.' 

For Parts of Speech, Inflection and Analysis. — In this 
complex parsing, it is perhaps best to make the analysis the 
principal operation and the others subsidiary. 



GENERAL PARSING. 171 

Complex Sentence.— A -f- a. 
A. 

I. Subject, 'it;' pronoun, demonstrative, singular number, 

neuter gender ; refers forward to II. 

II. Apposition Adjunct of Subject, 'to say in what de- 

partment of human thought and endeavour con- 
formity has triumphed most ; ' infinitive followed 
by noun clause (a). 

c To say,' verb, transitive (object — noun clause 
a), infinitive indefinite. 

III. Predicate. 1. Verb of incomplete predication, ' is.' 

2. Complement, ' hard. ' 

6 Is,' incomplete verb, indicative mood, present 
tense, singular number, third person. 

' Hard/ adjective of quality, complement of ' is.' 

a. 

I. Subject, 'conformity,' noun, abstract, active verbal — 
equivalent to ' the act of conforming.' 

III. Predicate, 'has triumphed ; ' verb, intransitive, indi- 
cative mood, present-perfect tense, singular num- 
ber, third person. 

' Has,' auxiliary verb, indicative mood, present 
tense, singular number, third person. 

' Triumphed,' verb, intransitive, perfect par- 
ticiple ; used with ' has ' to make up the present 
perfect tense. 

VI. Adverbial Adjuncts of Predicate. — 1. ' Most,' adverb 
of degree. 2. ' In what department of human 
thought and endeavour,' adverbial phrase of place 
(metaphorical). 



172 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 






' In,' preposition of place, rest in. 

' What,' being accompanied by a noun, must 
here be parsed as a pronominal adjective, interro- 
gative indefinite. 

' Department,' noun, general and significant. 
In one view c department ' is abstract, meaning a 
space portioned or parted off without reference to 
aaything but its being parted off. In this view 
it is the passive verbal corresponding to the active 
verbal 'partition.' 

' Of,' case-preposition, partitive meaning. 

' Human,' adjective of quality. 

'Thought,' noun, abstract, active verbal — equi- 
valent to c the act of thinking.' 

1 And,' conjunction, co-ordinating, cumulative. 

'Endeavour,' noun, abstract, active verbal — 
equivalent to ' the act of endeavouring.' 

For Syntax. — Concord. — ' It is,' and c conformity has,' are 
examples of the concord of iuflections for singular number. 
In both cases we can tell the number of the one part of 
speech without looking to the other. 

Government. — No instance. 

Order of Words.— Regular. — f It' refers forward to an 
infinitive, and there is nothing to make the reference indis- 
tinct. 

4. 

' To the south of Asia lies the group of the Sundas with its 
thousand islands and islets.' 

For Parts of Speech, Inflection and Syntax. — As a rule it is 
well to keep the parsing for Syntax distinct j but occasionally, 



GENERAL PAUSING. 173 

as an exercise of the ingenuity, it may be taken along with the 
other modes. 

c To,' preposition of place, placeand direction. 
1 The/ demonstrative adjective or definite article. Here it 
has no special limiting force, and is, indeed^ almost superfluous. 
' South,' noun, abstract, with corresponding adjective 
c southern ; ' used with a preposition in a phrase. 

1 Of,' preposition of place, expressing place and direction. 
There is here a distinct remainder of its primary meaning 
1 proceeding from ' — c south proceeding from Asia.' • South 
from Asia' is another recognised form of the phrase. 

' Asia,' noun, proper (singular and meaningless) . ' Asia ' 
is purely Singular : when used alone, it suggests the continent 
so called and nothing else. When applied to any other place 
it is enlarged by an adjective, as in Asia Minor (Asia the Less), 
and Australasia (Southern Asia). 

c To the south of Asia, ' adverbial phrase of place, placeand 
direction. Contrary to the general rule that the adverb fol- 
lows theverb, this phrase is placed before its verb. It is so 
placed for the sake of clearness and emphasis. 

' Lies,' verb, intransitive, indicative mood, present indefinite 
tense, singular number, third person, It is in concord with the 
singular subject 'group.' 

' The,' has here a decided limiting force, pointing to one 
particular group. 

* Group,' noun, collective ; used as the subject of a sentence. 
Contrary to the general rule that the subject precedes the verb, 
it is placed after the verb. The phrase 'to the south of 
Asia ' being placed at the beginning, c the group ' must come 
after the verb, otherwise it would be unduly separated either 
from the verb c lies,' or from its adjuncts c of the Sundas &c.' 



174 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

' Of,' here case-preposition, reference meaning, or simply 
preposition of reference. 

' The ' has more limiting force than in the first case, and 
less than in the second. 

c Sundas,' a meaningless name. ' Sunda' is not used alone, 
and the compound ' The Sundas ' may be described as a col- 
lective singular name, proper and meaningless. 

' Of the Sundas ' must be taken as an adjective phrase, 
equivalent to ' called the Sundas.' 

• With,' preposition of place, place and direction. ' With ' 
has here its meaning of companionship, the nearest to its 
primary meaning. 

'Its,' pronoun, demonstrative (referring to 'the group &c.'), 
singular number, neuter gender, possessive case. ■ Its ' is 
governed in the possessive case by the nouns following. The 
reference is perfectly distinct. 

' Thousand,' adjective of quantity. Properly speaking, it is 
a definite numeral ; but here it is used indefinitely, at least 
not with a precise meaning. 

' Islands,' noun, general and significant, plural number. 

e Islets,' noun, general and significant, plural number. 
' Islets ' is a lower class than island : it stands under c island * 
with the co-ordinate class ' large islands,' thus : — 

Islands. 



Large islands. Islets (small islands). 
' With its thousand islands and islets,' is here an adjective 
phrase to 'group.' It is co-ordinate, not restrictive. It is 
equivalent to the clause ' whose islands and islets are a thou- 
sand in number.' The idiom is peculiar. If the literal 
meaning of ' with ' were insisted on, the group would be re- 



of Subject 



GENERAL PARSING. 175 

presented as lying beside itself. The phrase is regularly- 
placed so as to qualify the noun it applies to. 

For Analysis. Simple Sentence. 

I. Subject, * group.' 

/ 1. 'the.' 

I 2. 'of the Sundas,' adjective 
II. Attributive adjuncts J , 

3. ' with its thousand islands 
and islets/ adj. phrase. 
III. Predicate, ' lies.' 

VI. Adverbial adjunct c ' to the south of Asia,' adver- 
of Predicate ^ bial phrase. 

5. 

Triumphal arch that fill' st the sky, 

When storms prepare to part ! 
I ask not proud philosophy 
To teach me what thou art. 
For Tarts of Speech. — 'Triumphal,' adjective of quality, 
restrictive, limiting the word ( arch ' to a narrower class. 

' Arch,' noun, general and significant ; used in apposition to 
' thou ' (line 4) to declare its reference. 
' That,' pronoun, relative, restrictive. 
' Fill'st,' verb, transitive (object — ' sky '). 
1 Sky.' 'The sky' like 'the earth,' is a singular designa- 
tion. When painters speak of ' a bit of sky,' they use the 
word as a noun of material. In the expression ' lands with 
brighter skies,' the word is used as a general noun, every 
country being supposed to have its own sky. 

' When,' pronominal adverb of time, used as a conjunction. 
1 Storms,' noun general and significant. 



176 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

1 Prepare/ verb, here intransitive, usually transitive. 

{ Part,' verb, intransitive. 

' To part,' gerundial adv. phrase of cause, qualifying c pre- 
pare.' 

' That fill'st the sky when storms prepare to part,' adjective 
clause, restrictive, required to specify the arch intended. 

' When storms prepare to part,' adverbial clause of time, 

e I,' pronoun, first personal. 

c Ask,' verb, transitive (object — ' to teach me what thou 
art '). This being one of those verbs that take what is called 
a secondary object, we may either suppose ' to teach &c.' to be 
the completion, and c philosophy* to be the object; or we 
may regard ' to teach' as the object, and ' proud philosophy' 
as an adverbial qualification with c from ' omitted. The second 
seems in this case the preferable course. 

c Not,' negative adverb. 

1 Proud,' adjective of quality, co-ordinate to c philosophy.' 
c Proud ' is an epithet, not a restrictive adjunct. 

' Philosophy,' noun, proper or singular, name of a branch of 
knowledge. 

'Teach,' verb, transitive (object — 'what thou art'). 
' Teach,' like ' ask,' takes a secondary object, and, as in the 
case of ' ask,' the best way of dealing with it probably is to re- 
gard c what thou art ' as the object, and f me ' as an adverbial 
phrase, with the preposition ' to ' omitted. 

1 What,' pronoun, interrogative, indefinite, complement of 

art.' 
' Thou,' pronoun, second personal. 
( Art,' verb of incomplete predication. 

For Inflection. — The inflected words are ' fill'st,' e storms,' 
' prepare,' { to part,' ' I,' ' ask,' ' to teach,' ' me,' f thou,' f art.' 









GENERAL PARSING. 177 

'Fill'st,' active voice, indicative mood, present indefinite 
tense, singular number, second person, 

* Storms,' plural number. 

' Prepare,' indicative mood, present indefinite tense. [Not 
distinctively inflected for number or for person]. 

( To part,' infinitive, gerund, equivalent to i for the purpose 
of parting,' or c with a view to parting.' 

'I,' singular number, common gender, nominative case. 

e Ask,' active voice, indicative mood, present indefinite 
tense. 

* To teach,' active voice, infinitive indefinite, object of 
transitive verb ' ask.' 

' Me,' singular number, common gender, objective case. 

c Thou,' singular number, common gender, nominative case. 

c Art,' indicative mood, present tense, singular number, 
second person. 
For Analysis. — Complex Sentence. — A + a -j- <x a + a a a. 

A. 

I. Subject, <I.' 

III. Predicate, ' ask not.' 

f to teach me .what thou art, 

triumphal arch that fill' st 
IY. Object -< , * ... 

&c, injiniuve with, noun 

clause (a) as object. 
VI. Adverbial adjunct of ( c (from) proud philosophy,' ad- 
Predicate v verbial jphrase. 

a. 
I. Subject, e thou.' 

( c triumphal arch that fill'st the 

II. Apposition adjunct J sky when storms prepare to 

of Subject j part/ noun with adj. and 

V adj. clause (a a). 



178 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

C 1. Verb of incomplete predica 
III. Predicate \ Hon, c art.' 

' 2. Complement, l what.' 

a a. 

I. Subject, c that.' 

III. Predicate, 'fill'st.' 

IV. Ob/ec*, c tlie sky.' 

VI. Adverbial adjunct f 'when storms prepare to part,' 
of Predicate l adv. clause (a a a). 

a a a. 
I. Subject, c storms.' 
III. Predicate, 'prepare.' 
YI. Adverbial adjuncts ( 1. 'when,' adverb. 

of Predicate i 2. c to part/ adv. phrase. 

6. 

(1 ) The Jews are in every way a remarkable people. (2) 
Sprung from one stock, they passed the infancy of their nation 
in servitude among foreigners. (3) They, nevertheless, 
increased in numbers so rapidly that they were able to re- 
conquer their native Palestine. (4) There they settled 
themselves, under a form of government and a code of laws, 
unlike those of any other community, rude, or civilized. 

(i). 

For Parts of Speech. — e The,' demonstrative adjective or 
definite article, limiting e Jews.' 

c Jews,' noun, common, general, or significant ; a class 
noun. A lower class, under the higher class 'men.' They 
agree in being descended from Abraham, and in dwelling to- 
gether as one people in Judaea. By combining the article with 



GENERAL PARSING. 179 

the noun— The Jews — we single out from among mankind the 
entire people called Jews. 

c Are,' verb of incomplete predication. 

' In/ preposition of place, rest in. Extended from signify- 
ing place to a more general meaning. 

' Every,' adjective of quantity, numeral, distributive. Em- 
phatic for c all ' — all ways. 

' Way/ noun, common, general, and significant. 

' In every way/ a phrase serving as an adverb to qualify 
the predicate of the sentence — £ are a remarkable people.' 

' A,' adjective of quantity, numeral, called the indefinite 
article. Singles out one remarkable people, but not any one 
in particular. 

* Remarkable/ adjective of quality. Limits the entire 
class c people ' to such as are remarkable. 

' A remarkable people,' completes the predicate of the sen- 
tence. 

For Inflection. — Only two words in the sentence are inflec- 
ted — c Jews/ and * are.' 

' Jews/ plural number of Jew : follows the general rule of 
forming the plural, by adding c s ' to the singular. 

' Are,' indicative mood, present tense, plural number, third 
person. The meaning of the tense is universal ; the statement 
is true at all times. 

For Analysis 

I. Subject} c Jews.' 
II. Adjunct of Subject, e the.' 

[ 1. Verb of incomplete predication, 

1 are.' 
^ 2. Complement, c a remarkable 
people.' 



180 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

VI. Adverbial adjunct of predicate, ' in every way/ 

For Syntax. Concord.— The Jews are. 

Government. — No instance. 

Order of ivords.— Regular. The subject f the Jews/ pre- 
cedes the verb ' are/ The adjectives ' the/ ' every,' ' remark- 
able ' precede their nouns. The adverbial phrase ' in every 
way ' is placed between the incomplete verb and its comple- 
ment so as unmistakably to qualify the whole predicate. 

(2) 

' Sprung from one stock, they passed the infancy of their 
nation in servitude, among foreigners/ 

For Parts of Speech and Inflection : — 

' Sprung', verb, intransitive (spring), passive, perfect parti- 
ciple. 

' From/ preposition of place, motion from (one of the case- 
prepositions). Lies between the participle ' sprung/, and the 
qualified noun, c one stock : ' having a reference to both. 

* One/ adjective of quantity, numeral, definite (cardinal 
number). Limits 'stock ' to a single definite stock. 

' Stock/ noun, common, general, significant ; a class noun. 
Limited by * one.' 

' They/ pronoun, demonstrative, plural. Refers back to 
€ Jews ' in the previous sentence. 

' Passed/ verb, transitive, active, indicative, past indefinite. 

1 The/ is here used to single out an attribute or quality. 

'Infancy,' noun (of state), abstract, adjectival j means the 
game as ' being an infant.' 

'Of/ preposition (one of the case prepositions), partitive 
meaning ; used to relate or connect that part of the life of the 
nation called its infancy. 



GENERAL PARSING. 181 

* Their/ adjective, pronominal, possessive, from, * they ' the 
plural demonstrative pronoun. Limits the class 'nation' to a 
single nation. 

* Nation,' a noun, general, &e. 

' In,' preposition of place, rest in. Passes from the meaning 
of ' in a place ' to the more general meaning of ' in a state,' 
namely, ' servitude.' 

Servitude,' noun, abstract, verbal. It is not derived 
from an adjective (like servility from servile), and so is not 
an adjectival abstract. It has the same meaning, as ' being 
in subjection.' 

' In servitude,' adverbial phrase of manner or quality. 

' Among,' preposition of place, place and direction. Means 
the same as the phrase, ' in the midst of.' 

' Foreigners,' noun, general, &c, plural number. 

' Among foreigners, ' adverbial phrase of place. Together 
with the previous phrase 'in servitude' qualifies the verb 
'passed, &c.' 

For Analysis. 
I. Subject, ' they.' 
II. Attributive adjunct f ' sprung from one stock,' participial 

of Subject t phrase, co-orddnate. 

III. Predicate, 'passed.' 
IY. Object, 'infancy.' 
V. Attributive adjuncts C\. ' the.' 

of Object (.2. 'of their nation,' adj. phrase. 

VI. Adverbial adjuncts ( 1. ' in servitude,' adv. phrase. 



if 



of Predicate \ 2. ' among foreigners,' adv. phrase 

For Syntax. Concord. — There is here no proper concord 
of inflection between subject and verb. ' They ' is distinc- 
tively inflected for number, but not ' passed.' 
16 



182 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

There is concord between 'they ' and 'their/ both being 
distinctively plural. 

Government — No instance. 

Order of words. —Regular. The subject 'they' precedes 
the verb. The verb (transitive) precedes its object—' infancy/ 
The pronoun 'they' has a distinct antecedent in the preced- 
ing sentence. The participial adjunct— 'sprung from one stock' 
precedes, and is closely conjoined with ' they,' which it is in 
co-ordination with. If the preposition ' from ' is taken with 
' one stock ' it makes up an adverbial phrase qualifying 
'sprung,' and placed after it, according to the rule of placing 
adverbs with intransitive verbs. 

All the adjectives precede their nouns. 

All the prepositions precede their nouns. 

The two adverbial phrases follow the object of the verb that 
they qualify ; which is the general rule . 

(3) 

'They, nevertheless, increased in numbers so rapidly, 
that they were able to re-conquer their native Pales- 
tine. ' 

For Parts of Speech omd Inflection (omitting words 
parsed in the foregoing examples). 

' Nevertheless,' adverb ; here a conjunction, co-ordinating, 
adversative, arrestive. Places the sentence in a kind of opposi- 
tion to the foregoing. 

' Increased,' verb intransitive, indicative, past indefinite. 

' Numbers/ noun, general, &c, plural number. A peculiar 
application of the word : ' in numbers ' an adverbial phrase of 
manner, qualifying ' increased. ' 

' So/ adverb of comparison ; part of the co-ordinating 
illative conjunction ' so that.' Qualifies the adverb ' rapidly/ 



GENERAL PARSING. 183 

but by way of comparison, so as to need a farther word or 
clause to complete the sense. 

c Rapidly,' adverb of quality (motion). 

* That,' the same as * by that,' an adverbial use of c that.' 
The compound c so that ' is here a co-ordinating conjunctive 
phrase of consequence, or illative conjunction : it introduces 
the co-ordinate clause — * they were able to re-conquer,' &c. 

c Were ' verb of incomplete predication, indicative, past inde- 
finite. 

' All,' adjective of quality, completes the verb c were/ 

'To re-conquer,' verb, transitive, active, gerund. After 
verbs or adjectives of ability or fitness, the infinitive form is 
best regarded as a gerund. 

c Native,' adjective of quality. Both ' their ' and e native ' 
are co-ordinating and not limiting adjectives, as must be the 
case with a singular noun. 

■ Palestine,' noun (place), proper, singular, meaningless. 
The co-ordinating adjectives c their,' c native,' have the same 
meaning as — c Palestine, which belonged to them, and was the 
place of their birth.' 

For Analysis.— Compound Sentence. — A -f- B. [A] They 
nevertheless increased rapidly in numbers ; [B] so that they 
were able to reconquer their native Palestine. A and B are 
united by the co-ordinating illative conjunction c so that.' 

Analysis of A. 
I. Subject, c they.' 
III. Predicate, c increased.' 

{ 1. c in numbers,' adj. phrase. 

VI. Adverbial adjuncts J 2. ' rapidly,' adverb. 

of Predicate J 3. 'nevertheless,' compound 

[ adv. of Degree. 



184 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES. 

Analysis of B. 
I. Subject j 'they' 

1. Verb of incomplete predication, 
6 were/ 

III. Predicate «^ 2. Complement, e able to reconquer 

their native Palestine,' adj. 
with gerundial adv. phrase. 
VI. Adverbial adjuncts s e so that,' compound adverb of 
of Predicate \ Cause. 

For Syntax. — No distinctive Concord. No Government. 

Order of words. — In accordance with the general rules. 
The two adverbial qualifications of 'increased' follow the 
verb. The conjunction c nevertheless,' which introduces the 
entire sentence, might be the first word of all j but this is 
one of the conjunctions that are sometimes placed after the 
first word or words of the sentence : 4 however ' is a common 
instance. 

(4). 

There they settled themselves, under a form of govern- 
ment, and a code of laws, unlike those of any other com 
munity, rude or civilized. 

Parts of Speech and Inflection. — e There,' adverb of place, 
rest in. Substitute for a relative, or demonstrative phrase 
e in that place,' the reference being to c Palestine.' 

' Settled,' verb, transitive, active, indicative, past indefinite. 

' Themselves,' pronoun reflective, plural, object of * settled.' 

c Under,' preposition of place, place and direction. Relates 
the noun c form ' to the verb * settled.' 

' Form,' originally an abstract noun, here used with * a ' as 
a general noun. In the expression, s the form of the govern 



I 



GENERAL PARSING. 185 

merit/ ' form ' is purely abstract, indicating one aspect of the 
government without regard to others, such as the persons 
composing it. But when we say 'a form of government,' or 
'forms of government/ we use either 'form/ or the entire ex- 
pression ' form of government/ as a general noun. 

' Of,' case -preposition, attributive meaning. Used to relate 
the quality ' form ' to the noun ' government.' ' Government » 
is also an abstract noun, but it must be viewed as concrete 
with reference to the attribute ' form. ' 

' Government/ noun, abstract, active verbal. 

1 Code/ must be parsed like ' form ; ' a noun originally 
abstract, used as a general noun. 

' Laws/ a noun general and significant. 

c Unlike/ adjective of quality. 

1 Those,' pronoun, demonstrative, plural number. This is 
one of the cases where ' that ' (or its plural) is undoubtedly a 
pronoun. 

' Of,' case-preposition, partitive meaning. ' Of has here 
quite a different meaning from what it has in the two preced. 
ing instances. The laws are considered a part, not an attri- 
hute of the community. 

' Any,' adjective, numeral, indefinite 

'Other/ adjective, numeral, distributive. 

'Community/ noun, collective. Originally an adjectival 
a bstractnoun, meaning 'being in common.' 

'Rude/ adjective of quality. 

' Or/ conjunction, co-ordinating, adversative, alternative. 

' Civilised/ adjective of quality. The word has the form of 
a perfect participle, but it is here an adjective, as we know 
both from its corresponding with an adjective — ' rude/ and 
from our being at liberty to substitute for it the adjective 
' civil/ which is used in Old English with the same meaning. 



186 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES, 

The whole expression — ' under a form of government and a 
code of laws unlike those of any other community, rude or 
civilised,' is an adverbial phrase of place. 






For Analysis. 
I* Subject, 'they.' 
III. Predicate, 'settled.' 
IY. Object, 'themselves/ 

/ 1. 'there.' 
VI. Adverbial adjuncts I 2 . ' under a form of government, 
of Predicate | and &c ^ adverUah phmse> 

For Syntax. Concord. — The pronoun 'those' agrees in 
number with its antecedents ' form of government,' and ' code 
of laws.' The two antecedents together are plural. 

Government. — ' Themselves ' seems to be governed in the 
objective case by ' settled ; ' but really ' themselves ' is not a 
distinctive inflection for the objective, the pronoun has the 
same form for the nominative. 

Order. — The only departure from the general rules is in 
the position of the adverb ' there : ' which, for the sake of 
emphatic connection with its antecedent in the preceding 
sentence, is placed at the beginning, instead of following 
'themselves.' The adjective 'unlike' follows instead of pre- 
ceding its noun, because it is attended by adjuncts. 



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